Category: HINDUISM

परिचय

भारतीय संस्कृति में मनुष्य जीवन को चार पुरुषार्थों में विभाजित किया गया है – धर्म, अर्थ, काम और मोक्ष l काम का स्थान चार पुरुषार्थों में तीसरा है और अन्तिम पुरुषार्थ मोक्ष है जिसको जीवन का अन्तिम लक्ष्य कहा गया है l यथा धर्म के लिए धर्मशास्त्रों का, अर्थ के लिए अर्थशास्त्र का और मोक्षप्राप्ति के लिए मोक्ष के ग्रन्थों का अध्ययन आवश्यक है तथैव काम के ज्ञान और यथायोग्य विवेकजन्य प्रयोग के लिए कामशास्त्र का अध्ययन आवश्यक है l इस लेख में काम और कामशास्त्र को ध्यान में रखकर निम्नलिखित मुद्दों पे विवेचन प्रस्तुत है –

• काम की व्युत्पत्ति और शास्त्रों में स्थान l
• कामशास्त्र का उद्गम और प्रयोजन l
• वात्स्यायन और कामसूत्र की रचना l
• कामशास्त्र की ग्रन्थ परम्परा l
• कामसुत्र का संदेश l
• उपसंहार l

इस ग्रन्थ के पठन पर्यन्त यह अपेक्षा है कि पाठक काम और कामशास्त्र के उन बिन्दुओं से अवगत होगा जो सामान्यतया प्रकाश में नहीं आये हैं या उनको दबा दिया गया है और फलतः आज कामसूत्र को शास्त्र होते हुए भी घृणा या जुगुप्सा की दृष्टि से देखा जाता है l

काम की व्युत्पत्ति और शास्त्रों में स्थान

“कम् – कान्तौ” धातु से जन्य शब्द है काम l काम अर्थात् इच्छा[1] l जहाँ इच्छा वहाँ आकर्षण और यह आकर्षण ही समस्त संसार के अस्तित्व का मूल है l विज्ञान से यह सिद्ध है कि विश्व का प्रत्येक पदार्थ अन्य पदार्थ को आकर्षित करता है अतः आकर्षण जिसके मूल में है वह काम प्रत्येक पदार्थ में स्थित है l अमरकोश में काम को ‘मानसिक भाव’ की श्रेणी में रखा गया है l ऋग्वेद में काम को मन का वीर्य (रेतस् ) कहा गया है जो मानसिक भाव को प्रतिपादित करता है l [2]

वात्स्यायन प्रणीत कामसूत्र के अनुसार ज्ञानेन्द्रियों का (कर्ण, त्वचा, नेत्र, जिह्वा, नासिका), अपने अपने विषय में (क्रमशः शब्द, स्पर्श, रूप,रस, गन्ध), अनुकूल रूप में, प्रवृत्त होना अर्थात् काम l [3] यहाँ काम की व्याख्या में वात्स्यायन स्पष्ट है l वह काम को केवल शारीरिक सुख या वासना नहीं बताते l

काम के मुख्य दो प्रकार मिलते हैं – लौकिक और अलौकिक l लौकिक काम में मुख्य रूप से शारीरिक सुख और गौणरूप से अन्य इच्छा का समावेश होता है l अलौकिक काम की श्रेणी में दिव्यकर्म की इच्छा और कभी देवों की इच्छाओं को भी रखा जा सकता हैं l

ऋग्वेद में पृथ्वी की उत्पत्ति का कारण काम ही माना गया है और उसे परब्रह्म के हृदय से जनित बताया है[4] अतः काम की उत्पत्ति अलौकिक है न कि लौकिक l लौकिक हेतुओं की सिद्धि हेतु काम से ही अन्य प्रजा जन्म लेती हैं l उपनिषद में भी इसका प्रतिपादन हुआ है l

सोऽकामयत बहुस्यां प्रजायेत l

काममय एवायं पुरुषः ll – तैत्तिरीयोपनिषद्

श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता में भी भगवान् श्रीकृष्ण ने कहा है कि “समस्त प्राणिजगत् में धर्म के अनुरूप जो भी काम है वह मैं ही हूँ” l [5] “अहं सर्वस्य प्रभवः” बोल कर गीता में, कृष्ण, स्वयं को जगत् की उत्पत्ति का मूल कारण बताते है अतः कामरूप बीज स्वयं को ही बताते है l

पौराणिक साहित्य (पुराण आदि) एवं लौकिक साहित्य (कालिदास, माघ आदि का साहित्य) में काम को देव की उपाधि प्राप्त होती है और उसे नाट्यशास्त्र में भी स्थान प्राप्त होता है l समय का चक्र काम को शिल्प-स्थापत्य में भी स्थानप्राप्ति देता है और साथ साथ शास्त्रपरम्परा में भी l पुरुषार्थचतुष्ट्यम् में धर्म और अर्थ के बाद काम को स्थान मिलता है और बाद में मोक्ष को l व्याकरण के अनुसार सर्वप्रथम धर्म, तत्पश्चात् अर्थ, काम और मोक्ष शब्द होने चाहिए ऐसा कोइ नियम नहीं है, किन्तु सर्वप्रथम अर्थ शब्द होना चाहिए, यद्यपि यह क्रम निश्चित हुआ है जो मुक्ति (मोक्ष) से पूर्व काम की उपयोगिता दर्शित करता है l मुक्ति मानवजीवन का सर्वोच्च ध्येय है किन्तु काम की उपेक्षा कर के नहीं क्योंकि काम (धर्मानुरूप) मानवी के लिए मोक्ष में बाधक नहीं अपितु सहायक है l

शास्त्रोक्त और आज रूढिगत हो चुके षोडश संस्कारों में वर्णित गर्भाधान, पुंसवन और विवाह जैसे संस्कारों से काम का महत्त्व देखने को मिलता है l

गर्भाधान संस्कार – गर्भाधान का सामान्य अर्थ है “धर्मपत्नी के गर्भ में बीज का आरोपण करना” और उस से उत्पन्न संतान ही औरस संतान होती है l इसी संतान से माता-पिता के धर्म एवं अन्य जीवनकार्य (अर्थ आदि) जुडे होते हैं अतः कामप्रेरित व धर्मानुकूल गर्भाधान से जन्य संतति माता-पिता के पुरुषार्थों की वाहक होती है l गृहस्थाश्रम का यह कार्य ही आगे सन्यासाश्रम में मोक्षप्राप्ति तक ले जाता है l

पुंसवन संस्कार – सामान्यतया, गर्भ रहने के तीन या चार माह बाद, संतति के दोषरहित जन्म हेतु किए जाते है l यहाँ भी संतति के जन्म हेतु ‘कामना’ की जाती है जिसे शास्त्रोक्त विधि से अभिषिक्त किया जाता है l

विवाह संस्कार – चारों आश्रमों में गृहस्थाश्रम का महत्त्व सर्वाधिक है और मनु ने उसे अन्य सभी आश्रमों का आधार बताया है[6] तथैव विवाह गृहस्थाश्रम का प्रमुख संस्कार माना गया है l विवाह को वैदिक साहित्य में ‘यज्ञ’ की श्रेणी में रखा गया है[7] और उसका मुख्य उद्देश्य संतानप्राप्ति (वंशप्राप्ति) है जिस की पूर्ति हेतु धर्माधारित काम का आचरण अनिवार्य है l यहाँ दो शब्दों का भेद जानना अत्यावश्यक होगा – काम और यौन.

• संतति की प्राप्ति हेतु शारीरिक सम्बन्ध स्थापित होता है तो उसे कामसम्बन्ध कहा जाता है l
• शारीरिक सम्बन्ध का हेतु संततिप्राप्ति न हो कर केवल आनन्दप्राप्ति हो तो वह यौनसम्बन्ध है l

निष्कर्ष – वैदिक शास्त्रों में वर्णित दैवी काम, जो जगत् और प्रजा की उत्पत्ति का कारण है, पौराणिक शास्त्रों में देवत्व को प्राप्त होता है और आगे चल कर साहित्य में और कलाओं में भी यथायोग्य स्थान को प्राप्त होता है l श्रुति और स्मृति दोनों प्रकार के ग्रन्थों में काम को अन्य तीन पुरुषार्थों का पूरक माना है और मुख्य सोलह संस्कारों में भी काम का प्रमुख स्थान है अतः धर्मानुकूल काम सदैव ही समाज का एक महत्व का अङ्ग रहा है l

कामशास्त्र का उद्गम

अथर्ववेद के विवाह प्रकरण सूक्त में कामशास्त्र की संकल्पना के बीज मिलते हैं[8] जहाँ अग्निदेव से प्रार्थना की जाती है कि वह नवविवाहिता स्त्री को सुसंतति प्रदान करे l अथर्ववेद के इसी सूक्त की एक ऋचा में सूर्यपुत्री को उत्तम संतति को जन्म देने हेतु प्रसन्नचित्त हो कर पति के साथ समागम के लिए शैया पे आने को कहा जाता है l [9]

 छान्दोग्य उपनिषद में यही संकल्पना विकसित हुई है l वहाँ स्त्री-संभोग को ‘सामवेद का गान’, स्त्री को प्रसन्न करने की क्रिया को ‘प्रस्ताव’, स्त्री के साथ शयन को ‘उद्गीथ’, संभोग को ‘प्रतिहार’ और मैथुनक्रिया के अन्त में होते वीर्यस्खलन को ‘निधन’, प्रायः अन्त में समूह में होता सामवेद का गान, कहा गया है l [10]

अतः कामशास्त्र का मूल वैदिक साहित्य में प्राप्त होता है जो आगे जाकर शास्त्र के रूप में विकसित होता है l

कामशास्त्र का प्रयोजन

काम का धर्माधारित होना अत्यावश्यक है यह हमने देखा l अभी यक्ष प्रश्न यह है कि धर्म-आधारित काम क्या है ? उससे हम अवगत कैसे हो ? विभिन्न सामाजिक परिस्थितियों में धर्माधारित काम क्या होगा ? क्योंकि काम धर्माधारित है अतः वह प्रत्येक व्यक्ति के लिए प्रत्येक परिस्थिति में समान न रहकर भिन्न रूपों में होगा l ऐसे अनेक प्रश्न एवं संशयों के निवारण हेतु शास्त्र का होना अनिवार्य है और यही है काम आधारित शास्त्र अर्थात् कामशास्त्र का प्रयोजन l

शास्त्र की एक सर्वमान्य व्याख्या है – शास्ति च त्रायते च इति शास्त्रम् – जो अनुशासन और रक्षा प्रदान करे वह है शास्त्र l काम यदि मर्याद व अनुशासित न रहे तो वह प्रथम व्यक्ति के और तत्पश्चात् समग्र समाज के पतन का कारण बनता है l इतिहास में अमर्याद काम से नष्ट होते व्यक्ति के अनेक उदाहरण प्राप्त होते हैं जिनसे संदेश यही मिलता है कि काम अनुशासित और मर्यादा में ही होना उचित है l धर्माधारित और मर्यादारत काम घर में, कुल में और समाज में अनुशासन बनाए रखता है जिस से व्यभिचार, भ्रष्टाचार आदि पे नियन्त्रण रहता है, शान्ति बनी रहती है और समाज रक्षित रहता है l श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता में अर्जुन ने कहा है – अधर्म आधारित काम से वर्णसङ्कर प्रजा का जन्म होता है जो प्रथम कुल को, तत्पश्चात् जाति को, तत्पश्चात् समाज को नष्ट करती हैं l [11]

काम को शास्त्र के रूप में वर्णित करनेवाला प्राचीनतम ग्रन्थ जो आज प्राप्य है वह है मुनि वात्स्यायन प्रणीत कामसूत्र l कौन थे वात्स्यायन और क्यों उन्होंने कामसूत्र की रचना की ?

वात्स्यायन और कामसूत्र की रचना

वात्स्यायन

विद्वानों के मतानुसार वात्स्यायन वत्स गोत्र में उत्पन्न संतान का निर्देशक है – वत्सस्य गोत्रापत्यम् वात्स्यायनम् l गौड ब्राह्मणों के एक गोत्र का नाम वत्स है अतः वात्स्यायन वास्तविक नाम न होने की विशेष संभावना है l संस्कृत गद्यकार सुबन्धु रचित “वासवदत्ता” में कामसूत्र के रचयिता का नाम ‘मल्लनाग’ दिया है और यही नाम कामसूत्र के प्रसिद्ध टीकाकार यशोधर ने भी अपनी टीका में दिया है l अतः वात्स्यायन का वास्तविक नाम मल्लनाग होने के प्रमाण भी प्राप्त है l एक और वात्स्यायन भी है जिसने न्याय पे भाष्य लिखा है l विद्वानों के मतानुसार कामसूत्र और न्यायभाष्य – दोनों का कर्ता एक ही व्यक्ति हो सकता है l कामसूत्र में यथोचित स्थान पे रचनाकार “इति वात्स्यायनः” कह कर अपना मत प्रकट करता है अतएव कामसूत्र के रचयिता के रूप में वात्स्यायन नाम ही प्रचलित हुआ है l

कामसूत्र का उल्लेख सुबन्धु के ‘वासवदत्ता’ में और भरतमुनि के ‘नाट्यशास्त्र’ में प्राप्त होता है l कालिदास की कृतिओं में और अन्य सभी परवर्ती साहित्य में भी कामसूत्र का प्रभाव स्पष्ट देखने को मिलता है अतः कामसूत्र न केवल एक प्राचीन शास्त्र है अपितु साहित्य में भी उसको यथोचित स्थान प्राप्त है l

कामसूत्र की रचना

कामसूत्र के प्रारम्भिक सूत्रों में ही कामसूत्र की रचना कैसे हुइ उसका विवरण प्राप्त होता है जिसका संक्षिप्त रूप है – प्रजापति ब्रह्मा द्वारा एक लक्ष (लाख) अध्यायों से युक्त शास्त्र का सर्जन होता है जिसमें से धर्मशास्त्रविषयक अंश को मनु, अर्थशास्त्रविषयक अंश को बृहस्पति और महादेव के अनुचर नन्दी द्वारा सहस्र (1000) अध्यायों से युक्त कामशास्त्रविषयक अंश को पृथक् किया गया l शिव-पार्वती के विवाह पश्चात् उनके रतिसुख के समय पे नन्दी द्वारा इस ग्रन्थ की रचना बताई गई है l

आरुणि उद्दालक का पुत्र श्वेतकेतु सहस्र अध्यायों को पाँच सौ (500) अध्यायों में संक्षिप्त करता है l प्रायः यह वही श्वेतकेतु है जिसने विवाह परम्परा को स्थापित किया था l बभ्रु का पुत्र बाभ्रव्य इसे एक सौ पचास (150) अध्यायों में संक्षिप्त करता है और साथ में सात अधिकरणों में विभक्त भी करता है l बाभ्रव्य के परवर्ती साहित्यकारों द्वारा एक एक अधिकरण पे स्वतन्त्र कामाधारित शास्त्रों की रचना होती है अतः अन्त में शास्त्र एक न रह कर विभक्त रूपों में विस्तारित हो जाता है l बाभ्रव्य से पूर्ववर्ती आचार्यों के शास्त्र भी लुप्त हो जाते हैं अतः संपूर्ण कामशास्त्र का अध्ययन होना अशक्य हो जाता है और अन्त में वात्स्यायन द्वारा बाभ्रव्य के प्रायः लुप्त सातों अधिकरणों को ही आधार बनाकर कामसूत्र की रचना होती है जिसमें संक्षिप्तता भी हो और पूर्णता भी l नन्दी से वात्स्यायन पर्यन्त इस शास्त्र का नाम ‘कामसूत्र’ ही होता है जो ध्यानपात्र मुद्दा है l

कामशास्त्र की ग्रन्थपरम्परा

कामसूत्र की रचना के पश्चात् कामशास्त्र की ग्रन्थपरम्परा का उद्भव हुआ जिसका आधार नित्य कामसूत्र ही रहा l प्राप्त-अप्राप्त अनेक ग्रन्थ इस ग्रन्थपरम्परा में प्राप्त होते हैं जिसमें से कुछ निम्नलिखित हैं –

1) अनङ्गतिलक 2) अनङ्गदीपिका               3) अनङ्गरङ्ग

4) अनङ्गशेखर             5) कन्दर्पचूडामणि             6) कादम्बरस्वीकरणकारिका

7) कादम्बरस्वीकरणसूत्र   8) कामकल्पलता              9) कामतन्त्र

10) कामप्रकाश           11) कामप्रबोध                 12) कामरत्न

13) कामसमूह             14) कामसार                  15) कामाप्राभृतक

16) कामानन्द             17) केलिकुतूहल               18) पञ्चसायक

19) प्रणयचिन्ता            20) मदनसंजीवनी             21) मदनार्णव

22) मनसिजसूत्र           23) मन्मथसंहिता              24) रतिकल्लोलिनी

25) रतिचन्द्रिका           26) रतिनीतिमुकुल            27) रतिरत्नप्रदीपिका

28) रतिरहस्य              29) रतिरहस्यदीपिका          30) रतिरहस्यार्णव

31) रतिसर्वस्व             32) रतिसार                   33) रसचन्द्रिका

34) वात्स्यायनसूत्रसार     35) वेश्याङ्गनाकल्पद्रुम         36) शृङ्गारकन्दुक

37) शृङ्गारदीपिका         38) शृङ्गारमञ्जरी               39) शृङ्गारसार

40) सदर्पकन्दर्प           41) स्त्रीविलास                 42) स्मरदीपिका

कामसूत्र का संदेश –

कामसूत्र की रचना को ले कर संदेश वात्स्यायन ने इस ग्रन्थ में अन्तिम चरण में निर्दिष्ट किया है जो निम्नलिखित है और प्रायः लोग उस पर ध्यान नहीं देते –

1] पूर्ववर्ती कामसूत्र के ग्रन्थ एवं उनके रचयिताओं के विभिन्न मतों का अध्ययन करके एवं स्वबुद्धि से चिन्तन करके ही वात्स्यायन ने कामसूत्र की रचना कि है l [12]

2] इस कामशास्त्र को जाननेवाला व्यक्ति निश्चय ही धर्म, अर्थ, काम, विश्वास और लोकाचार को ध्यान में रख कर ही प्रवृत्त होगा, राग या कामुकतावश नहीं l [13]

3] कामसूत्र में धर्मविरुद्ध कामक्रियाओं का उल्लेख अवश्य है किन्तु वह कुछ क्षेत्रों की लोकप्रचलित रूढियों से विशेष नहीं हैं और उसे विवेचन के पश्चात् निषिद्ध घोषित भी कर दिया गया है l [14]

4] कामसूत्र की रचना ब्रह्मचर्य व समाधि द्वारा लोकव्यवहार को सुचारु रूप से चलाने के लिए हुइ है अतः इस ग्रन्थ के विधान रागमूलक नहीं समझना चाहिए l [15]

5] कामशास्त्र के तत्वों को समझनेवाला व्यक्ति काम की यथायोग्यता को लेकर जितेन्द्रिय हो जाता है l [16]

कामसूत्र के अन्तिम सूत्र में वात्स्यायन कामसूत्र का मुख्य उद्देश्य भी स्पष्ट करते है कि – जो भी व्यक्ति रागात्मक भाव से इस शास्त्र का अध्ययन व प्रयोग करेगा उसे सिद्धि कदापि प्राप्त नहीं होगी किन्तु विवेक से किए गए अध्ययन व प्रयोग से पूर्णसिद्धि प्राप्त होगी l [17]

उपसंहार 

1. उपरोक्त बिन्दुओं से यह प्रमाणित होता है कि कामशास्त्र का आधार धर्म है और उसकी रचना का उद्देश्य सामाजिक व्यवस्था है न कि व्यभिचार की वृद्धि l
2. वात्स्यायन ने धर्म को सर्वाधिक महत्ता दी है अतः काम धर्म का विरोधी नहीं है अपितु धर्म पे ही आधारित है l
3. कामसूत्र में वात्स्यायन ने मत दिया है कि – धर्म संसार का नियामक है अतः वह पुरुषार्थों का मूल है और अर्थवृत्ति भी धर्माधारित ही होनी चाहिए तत्पश्चात् धर्माविरुद्ध काम का सेवन इच्छनीय है अतः कामशास्त्र अमर्याद या उच्छृंङ्खल काम की अनुमति नहीं देता l
4. कामसूत्र का अध्ययन व प्रयोग विवेक आधारित होगा तभी समाज में अनुशासन रहेगा अन्यथा अराजकता और व्यभिचार की वृद्धि होगी l
5. कामसूत्र और काम के अन्य ग्रन्थ, शास्त्र की एक विशाल श्रेणी के अन्तर्गत आते हैं अतः उनका अध्ययन शास्त्रोक्त विधि से होना चाहिए न कि सामान्य भाषान्तर के पठन द्वारा l यदि ऐसा न हुआ तो अर्थ का अनर्थ होना निश्चित है और शास्त्र का प्रयोजन ही विफल हो जाएगा l

वात्स्यायन के एक सूत्र से इस लेख को पूर्ण कर रहा हूँ –

ll सा चोपायप्रतिपत्तिः कामसूत्रादिति वात्स्यायनः ll – कामसूत्रम् 1.2.19

(दाम्पत्य जीवन को सफल बनाने के उपायों का परिज्ञान कामसूत्र से ही होता है)

[1] अमरकोशः

[2] कामः मनसः रेतः (ऋग्वेदः 10.129.3, नासदीयसूक्तम् )

[3] कामसूत्रम् 2.1.11

[4] ऋग्वेदः 10.129.4, नासदीयसूक्तम्

[5] धर्माविरुद्धो भूतेषु कामोऽस्मि भरतर्षभ, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता 7.11

[6] यथा वायुं समाश्रित्य वर्तन्ते सर्वजन्तवः l

तथा गृहस्थं आश्रित्य वर्तन्ते सर्वाश्रमाः ll – मनुस्मृतिः 3.77

[7] अयज्ञियो ह वा एष योऽपत्नीकः l (तैत्तिरीयब्राह्मणम् 2.2.2.6)

[8] अथर्ववेदः 14.2

[9] आ रोह तल्पं सुमनस्यमानेह प्रजां जनय पत्ये अस्मै, अथर्ववेदः 14.2.31/32

[10] उपमन्त्रयते स हिंकारो ज्ञपयते स प्रस्तावः स्त्रिया सह शेतेस उद्गीथः त्रीं सहोते स प्रतिहारः कालं गच्छति तन्निधनं पारं गच्छति    तन्निधनमेतद्वामदेव्यं मिथुने प्रोक्तम् l – छान्दोग्योपनिषद् 2.13.1

[11] अधर्माभिभवात्कृष्ण प्रदुष्यन्ति कुलस्त्रियः l

स्त्रीषु दुष्टासु वाष्णेय जायते वर्णसङ्करः ll 1.41 ll

सङ्करो नरकायैव कुलघ्नानां कुलस्य च पतन्ति ll 1.42 ll

दोषैरेतैः कुलघ्नानां वर्णसङ्करकारकैः l

उत्साद्यन्ते जातिधर्माः कुलधर्माश्च शाश्वताः ll 1.43 ll

[12] कामसूत्रम् 7.2.52, 7.2 .56

[13] कामसूत्रम् 7.2.53

[14] कामसूत्रम् 7.2.54

[15] कामसूत्रम् 7.2.57

[16] कामसूत्रम् 7.2.58

[17] कामसूत्रम् 7.2.59

Featured Image: Livemint

एक आम भारतीय तंत्र शब्द सुनकर शायद गांजा फूंकते हुए,  हाथ में एक खोपड़ी पकडे, शमशान घाट में बैठे हुए कुछ अरुचिकर अनुष्ठान करते हुए खून से लथपथ आंखों वाला एक अव्यवस्थित व्यक्ति की कल्पना करेगा। विदेशी और अंग्रेजी शिक्षित अधिक कुलीन पश्चिमीकृत शहर के लोग तुरंत सेक्स और अवसाद के बारे में सोचेंगे। यदि आप इंटरनेट पर ‘तंत्र’ शब्द गूगल करेंगे, तो आप विभिन्न यौन स्थितियों में “पूर्वी दुनिया” के लोगों की बहुत सारी छवियों को देखेंगे। तंत्र का सभी प्रकार के अनैतिक, दुष्ट और अजीब प्रकार के नाकारात्मक जुडाव हिंदूओं के साथ-साथ गैर-हिंदूओं के मन-मस्तिष्क में घर कर गया और तंत्र को लोग काला-जादू, पशु बलि और अन्य आपत्तिजनक प्रथाओं से जोड़कर देखने लगे हैं।

इसके अलावा, “तंत्र सेक्स” और “तंत्र मसाज़” का एक कुटीर उद्योग पश्चिमी देशों, विशेष रूप से संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका में में विकसित हुआ है जो तंत्र को सॉफ्ट पोर्नोग्राफी की तरह प्रस्तुत करने की कोशिश करता है और इस बारे में जानबूझकर गलत प्रचार के द्वारा अपने आसपास उत्पादों और सेवाओं को बेचता है। तंत्र की विकृत परिभाषा विश्व स्तर पर फैली हुई है| उदहारण के लिए हमारे पास एक ऑस्ट्रेलियाई ‘स्कूल ऑफ़ तंत्र (लव वर्क्स) भी है, जिसके पास सर्वाधिक मांग वाला कार्यक्रम “मेलबोर्न कपल्स कोचिंग” है, जो पुरुषों के लिए मैथुन में लम्बी अवधि तक टिकने और महिलाओं के लिए अधिक यौन सुख पाने का “तांत्रिक कौशल” सिखाने का दावा करता है!

यह बहुत गंभीर एवं विचारनीय विषय है। तंत्र के बारे में इन धारणाओं में से प्रायः निश्चित रूप से गलत हैं और हिंदू धर्म को हीन दिखाते हैं। निबंधों की इस श्रृंखला में  मैं तंत्र के बारे में चर्चा करूँगा कि यह क्या है? किसको तंत्र नहीं कह सकते? वैदिक धर्मशास्त्र और तत्वमीमांसा से इसका संबंध, तंत्र के बारे में विभिन्न मिथक और गलत धारणाएं और आखिरकार आधुनिक हिंदू धर्म में इसकी प्रासंगिकता पर चर्चा करूँगा। मैं दिखाऊंगा कि कैसे तंत्र एक आम हिंदू के जीवन के लगभग सभी पहलुओं में जाने-अनजाने इस प्रकार सम्मिलित है जिसकी वह कल्पना भी नहीं कर सकता।

गूढ़ तांत्रिक अभ्यास

कुछ गूढ़ तांत्रिक साधनाएं जैसे पञ्च-मकार (मत्स्य,मांस,मदिरा(शराब),मुद्रा,मैथुन(समागम)) या षड-कर्म (छह “जादुई” अनुष्ठान) मुख्यधारा के हिंदू धर्म के अनुसार रहस्यमय या इससे विलग दिखाई देते हैं। इन्हें कुछ यहूदी-ईसाई पृष्ठभूमि वाले पश्चिमी इंडोलॉजिस्टों ने बाधा-चढ़ा कर और अजीब ढंग से पेश किया है क्योंकि वे धर्म को प्रामाणिकता के चश्मे से देखते हैं।

हालांकि तंत्र मांस और मैथुन से कहीं अधिक बढ़कर है – ये वास्तव में विशेष परिस्थितियों में कुछ चिकित्सकों द्वारा अभ्यास किया जाने वाला दुर्लभ और असाधारण रूप हैं। प्रख्यात तंत्रज्ञ श्री प्रबोध चन्द्र बागची ^[1] के अनुसार, ” इस बात से इनकार नहीं किया जा सकता है कि कुछ ग्रंथों में क्रियाएं हैं जिसे काला जादू कहा जा सकता है, और कुछ पाठ अश्लीलता से भरे भी हैं; लेकिन ये तांत्रिक साहित्य का मुख्य हिस्सा नहीं हैं ”।

अक्सर इन गूढ़ क्रियाओं पर अधिक ध्यान देने से मूल-तत्त्व पीछे छूट जाता है। आत्म-शुद्धि और आध्यात्मिक विकास पर पूर्ण ध्यान केन्द्रित करना तंत्र शास्त्र का अभिन्न अंग है, जिसमें सूक्ष्म तत्वमीमांसा और उन्नत योगाभ्यास शामिल हैं। इस संबंध में, प्रख्यात जर्मन इंडोलॉजिस्ट जॉर्ज फ्यूरस्टीन का कहना है: “हिंदू धर्म की तांत्रिक विरासत पर शोध और प्रकाशनों की कमी के कारण हाल के वर्षों में भ्रामक किन्तु चर्चित पुस्तकों ने इसका स्थान ले लिया है जिसे मैं नव-तांत्रिकता(Neo-Tantrism) कहता हूँ। उनका न्यून्तावादी दृष्टिकोण इतने चरम है कि इस विषय के एक नवसिखिये को उनके ग्रंथों में तांत्रिक विरासत के बारे में बमुश्किल ही कुछ मिल पायेगा। सबसे आम विकृति तांत्रिक योग को एक अनुष्ठान या पवित्र सेक्स के विषयमात्र के रूप में प्रस्तुत करना है। आज लोगों के विचार में, तंत्र सेक्स के सामान हो गया है। पर यह सच्चाई से कोसों दूर है!”^[2]

यह बेहद दुर्भाग्यपूर्ण है, और बहुत हद तक हम हिंदू खुद इसके लीयते जिम्मेदार हैं, क्योंकि हमने इस विकृति को हमारी अज्ञानता और अरुचि के कारण जारी रखने की अनुमति दे रखी है। फिर कई स्वघोषित हिंदू गुरु भी हैं जो तंत्र के इस विकृत संस्करण को फैला रहे हैं। रही-सही कसर बॉलीवुड ने पूरी कर दी है जिसमे तांत्रिक गुरुओं को भ्रष्टाचारी या एक गुफा में रहने वाले तांत्रिक गुरु जैसा रूढ़िवादी चित्रण करता है, जो सम्मोहन और जादुई कौशल से भविष्यवाणी कर सकता है; दुख की बात है कि बॉलीवुड ने फिल्मों से प्यार करने वाले भारतीयों की तीन पीढ़ियों के दिमाग में जहर भर दिया है।

हिंदू धर्म का एक अभिन्न अंग

संरचनात्मक स्तर पर तंत्र हिंदू धर्म का एक अभिन्न अंग है जैसे हाइड्रोजन परमाणु पानी के अणु (H2O) का एक अभिन्न अंग है। तंत्र “वर्तमान समय में भारत में पूजा की हर प्रणाली में व्याप्त है, जिसमें वैष्णव भी शामिल हैं” ^[3]; इसे कोई हिंदू धर्म से अलग नहीं कर सकता, वैसे ही जैसे कोई भोजन से स्वाद को अलग नहीं किया जा सकता।

तंत्र का मूल दर्शन वैदिक विश्वदृष्टि के अनुरूप है और जो भी अंतर मौजूद है वह बहुत सूक्ष्म और अति विशिष्ट दार्शनिक बिंदुओं को लेकर है। स्वामी समर्पणानंद के शब्दों में ^[४]:

तंत्र वेदों या किसी हिंदू दर्शन की तरह एकात्मक प्रणाली नहीं है। यह प्रागैतिहासिक काल से ही हिंदुओं की व्यवहार और विचारों का एक संचय रहा है। इसका जन्म वेदों में निहित है; इसका विकास उपनिषदों, इतिहास, पुराणों, और स्मृतियों के माध्यम से हुआ; और बौद्ध धर्म, विभिन्न लघु हिंदू संप्रदायों और विदेशी प्रभावों द्वारा भी इसका सतत उत्थान ही होता रहा है। तंत्र द्वारा इस प्रकार अर्जित सामर्थ्य और लचीलेपन के कारण इसे भारत के हर घर और मंदिर में प्रवेश मिला है और इसने हर उस प्रदेश में, जहां भारतीय विचार पहुंचे, वैभवशाली स्थान प्राप्त किया । भारत और पश्चिम में हिंदू धर्म के रूप में जो भी आप पाते हैं, वह अनिवार्य रूप से तंत्र ही है जो एक विशेष समुदाय या व्यक्ति की आवश्यकता के अनुरूप ढाला गया है।

यहाँ ध्यान देने योग्य एक महत्वपूर्ण बात यह है कि पूजा, जो आम घरों और मंदिरों में होने वाली उपासना की विधि है, के मूल और विकास में तंत्र ही है। दूसरी ओर यज्ञ वैदिक तत्वमीमांसा में निहित एक शुद्ध वैदिक निर्माण है। पुराण-पूजा नाम की भी एक पूजा है और पुराणों में स्वयं तंत्र शास्त्रों का बड़ा अंश उधार लिया गया है।

यह स्पष्ट है कि तंत्र को एक अलग श्रेणी में 19 वीं शताब्दी के इंडोलॉजिस्टों द्वारा पेश किया गया था।  क्योंकि वे वेदों से अलग किन्तु तत्त्वमीमांसा का ही एक भाग रहे तंत्र, आगम और यमला जैसे हिंदू (और बौद्ध) साहित्य के विशाल ज्ञान को समझने में असमर्थ थे। 19 वीं शताब्दी तक, हिंदुओं ने कुछ विशेष संप्रदायों की बेहद आपत्तिजनक प्रथाओं या गुह्य (गुप्त) प्रथाओं को छोड़कर तंत्र को कभी भी हिंदू धर्म से अलग नहीं माना। फ्रेंच इंडोलॉजिस्ट एंड्रे पादौक्स के अनुसार, “[तंत्र] इतना व्यापक था कि इसे एक विशिष्ट प्रणाली के रूप में नहीं माना जाता था।” ^[5]

इसलिए, आज हिंदू धर्म की संरचना आपस में जुड़ी हुई और अविभाज्य डीएनए के दोहरे-हेलिक्स सूत्रों की तरह है:

वैदिक सूत्र का सम्बन्ध उन प्रथाओं और रीति-रिवाजों से है जिनका उद्गम पुरु-भरत के पुरोहित धर्म से हुआ और जो पूरे भारतवर्ष में विविध सामाजिक-सांस्कृतिक विषयों को स्वयं में आत्मसात करते हुए फैला |^[6]

तांत्रिक सूत्र का सम्बन्ध उन प्राचीन प्रथाओं और रीति-रिवाजों से है जो पशुपति-शिव और अखिल भारतीय देवी पंथों के साथ शुद्ध वैदिक विषयों के संलयन से बढ़े थे, जो एक विशाल जनसंख्याँ के बीच एक विस्तृत भौगोलिक क्षेत्र में कई सहस्राब्दियों से अधिक समय तक फैलते रहे।

वास्तव में, अथर्ववेद को तंत्र का एक अग्रदूत माना जाता है, क्योंकि अथर्ववेद में कई विचार पाए जाते हैं जैसे एकत्व दर्शन, दीक्षा, चक्र, मंत्र-तत्व, और तथाकथित “जादुई” तत्व जैसे वशीकरण, स्तम्भन आदि जिसे बाद में तंत्रों में विस्तृत ढंग से बताया गया है। तांत्रिक ग्रंथों में अक्सर प्राचीन श्रद्धेय गुरुओं जैसे दधीचि, लकुलीश, कच एवं अन्य का उल्लेख मिलता है जिनकी भूमिका इस ज्ञान के प्रसार में मूर्धन्य थी।

तंत्र बनाम वेद

तंत्र और वेद के बीच के संबंध को समझाने के लिए, मैं कंप्यूटर विज्ञान के क्षेत्र से एक उदाहरण प्रस्तुत करता हूँ |

सेर्गेई ब्रिन और लॉरेंस पेज ने 1998 में अपने अग्रणी शोध [7] को प्रकाशित किया, जिसका शीर्षक था, “द एनाटॉमी ऑफ़ ए लार्ज-स्केल हाइपरटेक्चुअल वेब सर्च इंजन”, जिसमें उन्होंने बड़े पैमाने पर सर्च इंजन का एक नमूना प्रस्तुत किया, जिसमें हाइपरटेक्स्ट में मौजूद संरचना का वृहत उपयोग किया गया था। यह शोधपत्र इस प्रश्न पर आधारित है कि “बड़े पैमाने पर व्यावहारिक प्रणाली का निर्माण कैसे किया जाय, जो हाइपरटेक्स्ट में मौजूद अतिरिक्त जानकारी का प्रयोग कर सके” और यह भी कि “अनियंत्रित हाइपरटेक्स्ट संग्रह, जिसका प्रयोग कर कोई भी व्यक्ति कुछ भी प्रकाशित कर सकता है, के साथ प्रभावी ढंग से कैसे निपटें | ” इस पेपर को शैक्षणिक जगत में व्यापक रूप से सराहा गया था, और कई पीयर-रिव्यू जर्नल में कई बार उद्धृत और संदर्भित किया गया, और इसे 21 वीं शताब्दी के सबसे अग्रणी शोध पत्रों में से एक माना जाता है। इसने 21 वीं सदी का रूप ही बदल दिया। यह संभव है कि एक औसत व्यक्ति यह समझने की कोशिश कर रहा है कि ब्रिन और पेज किस बारे में बात कर रहे थे और समझ न आने की दशा में अपना सिर पकड़कर बैठ जाय। हालांकि, यह शोध पत्र साधारण शब्दों में लोकप्रिय खोज इंजन गूगल की उत्पत्ति और आंतरिक कामकाज पर चर्चा करता है।

अब प्रश्न यह उठता है कि जो व्यक्ति गूगल खोज का उपयोग करना सीखना चाहता है, क्या वह ब्रिन और पेज की शोध का अध्ययन करेगा? नहीं, क्योंकि उसे प्रत्येक कार्य का संक्षिप्त विवरण, कुछ उदाहरणों, उपयोगी आरेखों और FAQ शैली के उत्तर और गूगल के अंतर्निहित एल्गोरिथ्म के साथ “कार्य विवरण” गाइड की आवश्यकता है। क्या इसका मतलब यह है कि वह थीसिस बेकार है? बिलकुल नहीं। दोनों समान रूप से महत्वपूर्ण हैं, जो कि लक्षित दर्शकों पर निर्भर करते हैं। इसे ध्यान में रखते हुए, हम तंत्र और वेदों के बीच संबंधों की प्रकृति को समझने की कोशिश करेंगे।

वेद ज्ञान का भंडार हैं और उस ज्ञान को संदर्भित करते हैं जो ऋषियों को चेतना की उच्च अवस्था में मिला था और उन्होंने इसे मंत्र-संहिता के रूप में संहिताबद्ध किया। हालांकि, यह ज्ञान दुर्बोध, विशाल और आसानी से सुलभ नहीं है, सिवा उन विशेषज्ञों के जिन्होंने लंबे समय तक व्यापक एवं कठोर प्रशिक्षण लिया है। व्यापक टीकाओं और कार्यविधि के साथ जो तकनीकी ग्रंथ उपलब्ध हैं (ब्राह्मण), वे स्वयं काफी गूढ़, जटिल और विस्तार-उन्मुख हैं और ऐसा भी नहीं है कि कोई एक दिन अचानक इसका उपयोग कर उठकर यज्ञ करना शुरू कर सके। उसे इस विज्ञान में लंबे समय तक प्रशिक्षित होना पड़ेगा। दूसरी ओर, तंत्र शास्त्र है, जिसके माध्यम से ज्ञान का प्रसार होना है। वेदों के सारगर्भित और गूढ़ ज्ञान को सभी के लिए सुलभ बनाने के लिए उन्हें आसानी से समझने योग्य बनाया गया था। वैदिक ग्रंथ अन्य विशेषज्ञों के लिए विशेषज्ञों द्वारा लिखे गए ग्रंथ हैं, जबकि तांत्रिक ग्रंथ विशेषज्ञों और अभ्यासियों द्वारा अन्य अभ्यासियों के लिए लिखे गए ग्रंथ हैं।

एक आध्यात्मिक अभ्यासी के जीवन में तंत्र की वही भूमिका होती है जो ऊपर बताई गई “कार्य विवरण” मार्गदर्शिका का गूगल सर्च सीखने वाले के जीवन में होती है। ऊपर उल्लिखित शोध ब्राह्मण और उपनिषदों के समतुल्य है, जो उन विशेषज्ञों के लिए विशिष्ट दस्तावेज हैं जो ज्ञान प्राप्त करना चाहते हैं। इसलिए तंत्र व्यावहार में आने वाला एक आध्यात्मिक ज्ञान है और आध्यात्मिक उत्थान की ओर उन्मुख करने के लिए इसमें तत्त्व-सिद्धांतों (प्रकृति के मौलिक निर्माण इकाई का विज्ञान) और मंत्र (देवता सामान नाद का विज्ञान) का प्रयोग होता है। विशेष रूप से, तंत्र का अंतर्निहित ढांचा कुछ असमानताओं को छोड़कर मुख्यतः वेदांत और सांख्य पर आधारित है। ^[8] तंत्र “ब्राह्मण या शिव की परम सत्य एवं जगत में उनकी शक्ति की अभिव्यक्ति के योग की पहचान है।” ^[9] इसलिए तंत्र वैदिक कर्मकाण्ड(अनुष्ठान) और दर्शन के बीच का सेतु है और कभी-कभी वेदों के एक भाग के रूप में माना जाता है और इसे पांचवा वेद भी कहा जाता है।

सर जॉन वुड्रॉफ़ (उर्फ़ आर्थर एवलॉन) ने अपनी पुस्तक “ शक्ति एंड शाक्त ” में कहा है [10]:

आगम स्वयं दर्शनशास्त्र का ग्रंथ नहीं हैं, हालांकि उनमें जीवन के एक विशेष सिद्धांत का वर्णन है। उन्हें साधना शास्त्र कहना ज्यादा उचित होगा, अर्थात् व्यावहारिक शास्त्र जिसके द्वारा आनंद की प्राप्ति होती है, जो हरेक मानव की खोज है। और जैसा कि स्थायी आनंद ही ईश्वर है, वे सिखाते हैं कि कैसे मनुष्य पूजा और निर्धारित विषयों के अभ्यास से, दैवीय अनुभव प्राप्त कर सकता है। इन्हीं वचनों और प्रथाओं से दर्शन का अविर्भाव हुआ है।

वैदिक और तांत्रिक तत्वमीमांसा के बीच कुछ अन्य समानताएँ नीचे दी गई हैं

कर्मकांड वेद और तंत्र दोनों में एक सामान हैं.

शरीर के साथ मिथ्या संबंध छोड़ने का विचार दर्शन और तंत्र दोनों में है।

राजयोग में शरीर और मन के शुद्धिकरण का वर्णन ऐसे ही तंत्र में भी पाया जाता है।

भक्ति पुराण और तंत्र दोनों का हिस्सा है।

वैदिक और तांत्रिक पूजा के बीच एक मुख्य अंतर मंत्रों के पुन: प्रयोग के संबंध में है। वैदिक शास्त्र में प्रत्येक वांछित परिणाम और प्रत्येक क्रिया में अलग-अलग मंत्र और उनकी विस्तृत प्रक्रियाएं होती हैं। तांत्रिक शास्त्र में, केवल संकल्प को छोड़कर, एक ही मंत्र का उपयोग विभिन्न उद्देश्यों को प्राप्त करने के लिए किया जा सकता है।^[11]

आज, यदि आप घर पर पूजन करना चाहते हैं तो आप आमतौर पर “नित्यकर्म पाठ” का प्रयोग करेंगे, न कि ब्राह्मण या उपनिषदिक पाठ का। इन नित्यकर्म पुस्तकों में विभिन्न कर्मों (नित्य, नैमित्य आदि), विभिन्न पूजन प्रणाली और उससे सम्बंधित मंत्र, और विभिन्न देवताओं के स्तोत्रों के संग्रह का विस्तृत वर्णन मिलेगा। इसमें दर्शन या गूढ़ ज्ञान की एक भी पंक्ति नहीं होगी। अनुष्ठान शुद्धि के चरण, मुद्रा, न्यास आदि में से अधिकांश तांत्रिक ग्रंथों से लिए गए हैं, जबकि कुछ मंत्र वेदों और पुराणों से भी हैं। उदाहरणार्थ, आज बंगाल क्षेत्र से एक विशिष्ट नित्य कर्म पूजा गाइड पायी जाती है जो कई पूर्व गाइडों पर आधारित है जैसे कि 18 वीं शताब्दी के प्राणतोशिनी तंत्र या कृष्णानंद अगमवागीश द्वारा 16 वीं शताब्दी के पूजा उपासना बृहत्-तंत्रसार को। कृष्णानंद ने स्वयं इससे पुराने तांत्रिक ग्रंथों, मंत्रों मञ्जूषा और प्रमुख अनुष्ठानों जैसे कि पंचसार तंत्र और शारदा तिलक तंत्र का प्रयोग किया था।

निष्कर्ष

इस प्रकार हम पाते हैं कि तंत्र हिंदू धर्म का एक अनिवार्य अंग है और हमारे जीवन के लगभग सभी पहलुओं को छूता है। जबकि वेद ज्ञान और प्रकाश के श्रोत हैं, तंत्र आध्यात्मिक उत्थान के लिए इसकी इच्छा रखने वाले को “ कार्य विवरण ” मार्गदर्शिका प्रदान करते हैं। तंत्र दर्शन एक सर्वव्यापी परम सत्य को स्वीकार करता है और सांख्य दर्शन को प्रस्तुत करता है और इस प्रकार वेदांत और सांख्य के दर्शन को संरक्षित रखता है। हालांकि, वैदिक और तांत्रिक धाराओं के बीच कुछ मूलभूत दार्शनिक और तकनीकी अंतर हैं, जिनमें से कुछ का वर्णन किया गया है। स्वामी समर्पणानंद के शब्दों में ^[12]

तंत्र ने परम सत्य के साथ-साथ मोक्ष प्राप्त करने में अभ्यासियों के लाभ के लिए कर्म, ज्ञान, भक्ति और योग के समन्वय को सफलतापूर्वक पूरा किया है। हिंदू धर्म की विभिन्न आध्यात्मिक धाराओं का संयोजित फल होने के नाते, इसने अपने क्षेत्र को धर्म से जुड़ी हर उस ज्ञान, जो भारत के किसी भी प्रदेश में पायी जाती हो, को स्वीकार कर स्वयं को विस्तृत किया। बदले में, इसने कई आध्यात्मिक अंतर्दृष्टि का प्रतिपादन किया जो मानव जाति के लिए फलदायी हैं।

हिंदू धर्म का अभिन्न अंग होने पर भी, तंत्र को गलत समझा और पेश किया जाता है। सर जॉन वुडरॉफ़ ने 1913 में कहा था: “हिंदू शास्त्र के सभी रूपों में, तंत्र सबसे कम ज्ञात और चर्चित है, जिसका कारण इसके विषय-वस्तु का कठिन होना और इसकी शब्दावली और विधि का इसके सीखने वालों तक ही सीमित होना है। “^[13]

अपनी पुस्तक “शक्ति एंड शाक्त” में वे तांत्रिक अनुष्ठानों के बारे में कहते हैं: “भारतीय अनुष्ठान कितने प्रकांड हैं, यह वे लोग ही जान सकते हैं जिन्होंने सभी अनुष्ठानों और प्रतीकों के सामान्य सिद्धांतों को समझा है, और इसके भारतीय रूप, उस ज्ञान के साथ जिन सिद्धांतों की यह एक अभिव्यक्ति है, का अध्ययन किया है। जो लोग इसको स्वांग, अंधविश्वास और निरर्थक बताते हैं, वे स्वयं की अक्षमता और अज्ञानता ही प्रदर्शित करते हैं।” ^[14] यहाँ तार्किक प्रश्न यह उठता है कि अगर तंत्र हिंदू धर्म का इतना अभिन्न अंग है, तो फिर इस बारे में इतनी अज्ञानता क्यों है? ज्यादातर लोग तंत्र को हाशिये की प्रथाओं से क्यों जोड़ते हैं? यदि तंत्र हिंदू धर्म का एक प्रमुख घटक है, तो हम अपनी विरासत को पुनः प्राप्त करने के लिए क्या कर सकते हैं और इसे तंत्र के विकृत चित्रण, जो खासकर पश्चिम में है, से अलग कैसे कर सकते हैं?

यही कुछ सवाल हैं जिसका उत्तर हम श्रृंखला के बाकी हिस्सों में खोजने का प्रयास करेंगे। हम तंत्र के वर्गीकरण के बारे में बात करेंगे। हम पञ्च-मकार और षट्-कर्म के अभ्यास के बारे में चर्चा करेंगे, जो एक तरह से कई भ्रामक और त्रुटिपूर्ण व्याख्याओं का स्रोत हैं। अंत में, हम यह समझने की भी कोशिश करेंगे कि हम, आधुनिक अंग्रेजी पढ़े-लिखे भारतीय, 20 वीं सदी के आरंभ के भारतविदों(इंडोलॉजिस्ट) के कई पीढ़ियों के अनुभवों, चुनौतियों और पूर्वाग्रहों को किस तरह विरासत को अपनाया और आत्मसात कर चुके हैं, यह ध्यान रखते हुए कि उन्होंने एक उच्च दर्शन वाले विविधतापूर्ण मूर्तिपूजक पंथ का अध्ययन, वर्गीकरण और व्याख्या करने का प्रयास एक औपनिवेशिक इतिहास-केंद्रित अलगाववादी अब्राहमिक दृष्टि से किया था |

[1] (Swami Lokeswarananda, 2010, p. 7)

[2] (Sivaramkrishna, 2010)

[3] Swami Madhavananda in (Swami Lokeswarananda, 2010, p. 5)

[4] (Swami Samarpanananda, 2010)

[5] Padoux, André (2002), “What Do We Mean by Tantrism?”

[6] (Talageri, 2016)

[7] http://infolab.stanford.edu/~backrub/google.html

[8] Unlike Vedanta which considers creation as apparent, Tantra posits that non-dual Reality undergoes realevolution using the Samkhya categories.

[9] (Swami Lokeswarananda, 2010)

[10] (Woodroffe J. , 1918, p. Chapter One Indian Religion As Bharata Dharma)

[11] (Swami Samarpanananda, 2011)

[12] (Swami Samarpanananda, 2010, p. 275)

[13] (Woodroffe, 1913, p. Introduction)

[14] (Woodroffe J. , 1918, p. Chapter One Indian Religion As Bharata Dharma)

ग्रन्थसूची

Sivaramkrishna, M. (2010). Tantra Today: Blind Spots and Balanced Studies. Prabuddha Bharata, 282-288.

Swami Lokeswarananda. (2010). Studies on the Tantras. Kolkata: Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture.

Swami Samarpanananda. (2010, 4). The Tantras: An Overview. Prabuddha Bharata, pp. 269-275.

Swami Samarpanananda. (2011). Tantra Philosophy and its Practices (Bengali). Belur: Ramakrishna Vivekananda University.

Talageri, S. (2016, 5 7). Two papers by the Renowned Indologist P.E.Dumont. Retrieved from Shrikant G Talageri: http://talageri.blogspot.in/2016/05/two-papers-by-renowned-indologist.html

Woodroffe, J. (1913). Mahanirvana Tantra Translated by Arthur Avalon. Kolkata.

Woodroffe, J. (1918). Shakti and Shakta. Kolkata.

The article has been translated from English into Hindi by Satyam

Disclaimer: The facts and opinions expressed within this article are the personal opinions of the author. IndiaFacts does not assume any responsibility or liability for the accuracy, completeness, suitability, or validity of any information in this article.

Subhodeep Mukhopadhyay

Subhodeep Mukhopadhyay is from a data science background and his research interest includes history, religion and philosophy. He is the author of “The Complete Hindu’s Guide to Islam” and “Ashoka the Ungreat”

Nearly a hundred years ago, English historian George Rusby Kaye remarked that “the History of Indian Astronomy has a considerable history of its own.”

He was referring, of course, to the greatly fluctuating opinion in Europe, during the 18^th and 19^th centuries, regarding the substance and originality of Indian Astronomy.

It is widely acknowledged that the Indian civilization is among the oldest in the world, if not the oldest. The vast region of the Indian subcontinent, which can comfortably house the entire continent of Europe, has been home to many nations, cultures, customs, languages and religions over the millennia.

The most ancient texts of Indian literature show clear evidence of being at least 6000 years old. The subcontinent has also produced the two longest epics ever written by the hand of man.

In the field of astronomy too, ancient India appears to have produced a significant amount of output. We read in the ancient texts of at least 18 major treatises on astronomy, most of which have unfortunately been lost.

While the West has acknowledged the great age of the Indian civilization, the same has not been accorded to Indian Astronomy, the main reason for which has been political. The bulk of Western research into Indian Astronomy was carried out during the 18^th and 19^th centuries, when India was a colony of the British, and a major effort was on by the colonizers to impose their culture and religion on the Indians, to make them pliable and comfortable with the idea of western subjugation. In such a scenario, it is only to be expected that Indian Astronomy was deprecated by western scholars, and even accused of being plagiarized from Europe (read Greeks).

Even so, the history of Indian Astronomy from a European perspective is an enthralling area of research. The views and counter-views of the European scholars of those times make for fascinating reading. While the majority espoused the vision that the Indians had borrowed their Siddhantic Astronomy from the Greeks, a small minority took the opposite view.

Unlike the Indians, the West has had an enormous head-start in their extolling and eulogizing of Greek Astronomy. As one enters the field of Archeo-Astronomy, one becomes acutely aware of the vast gulf that exists between resources available for Greek and Indian astronomies. For anyone wishing to learn the ins and outs of the Greek science, there are bountiful resources available, including Otto Neugebauer’s comprehensive three-volume set on Greek Astronomy.

In contrast to Greek Astronomy, where the single text of Ptolemy’s Almagest reigns supreme, Indian Astronomy has multitudes of books, each with its own unique significance. There has been little effort, as yet, to synthesize the essence of these Indian texts into a comprehensive resource on Indian Astronomy. The available literature, such as it exists, can be aptly described as “meager”, with a good chunk of it having been written by western scholars, with their typical Greek bias. Most Indian papers and articles that one comes across appear to only skim the surface of its topic, utterly lacking in depth and rigor. Indian Astronomy, it appears, waits in hope for its Neugebauer.

In this series of articles, we will firstly examine the discovery of Indian Astronomy by the western world, starting in the late 17^th century, and the effusive praise that was showered on it by various Europeans. Later, we will delve into the politics of colonization that led eventually to the enforced deprecation of Indian Astronomy by western scholars, with such lasting effects, that even today, in the eyes of the world, Indian Astronomy bears the ignominious stamp of being a second-hand science, borrowed from foreign sources by incompetent, bungling amateurs.

How did that initial euphoria for Indian Astronomy in Europe, of nearly ten decades, turn within a short period of time into ridicule and contempt? How did this reversal come about? After a hundred years of research, books and articles – all commending Indian Astronomy for its originality, antiquity, depth and accuracy – how did all that get swept away, to be replaced with the conclusion that the Indians had simply borrowed it all from the Greeks? There is surely a good story somewhere in there.

From a European perspective, the evolution of the history of Indian Astronomy can be divided into three distinct phases: 1) Discovery and Euphoria, 2) Entry of Colonial Politics and Start of Deprecation, 3) Full-Blown Deprecation. We will examine these phases one by one.

Phase-I (Discovery and Euphoria)

The seminal event in Europe’s discovery of Indian Astronomy was the publication in 1691 of a small treatise on Indian astronomical rules by Jean Dominique Cassini, the renowned French-Italian astronomer.

Ironically, Europe first learnt of Indian Astronomy, not from India, but from Siam (Thailand). It so happened that a French envoy had been dispatched in 1687 to Siam, where there existed a flourishing Buddhist-Hindu kingdom. That gentleman brought back to Paris several artifacts and curiosities from the Kingdom, including an obscure manuscript relating to the astronomical traditions of that country.

That enigmatic manuscript, which may well have ended up lying unnoticed in some dusty corner of the Royal French archives, somehow passed into the hands of Cassini, who was able to decipher its cryptic contents, including the fact that the document originated in India.

Though the manuscript was only a small fragment of its parent volume at Siam, it contained enough material to provide tantalizing hints of the width and depth of Indian Astronomy. There were, however, some difficulties on the way for Cassini, who was working with a French translation of the manuscript: 1) The text of the manuscript was rather terse, with no explanations provided, 2) Some vital data appeared to be missing, 3) Some of the concepts and formulations in the manuscript were entirely new to him, 4) Several calculations were presented in an obfuscating manner, so as to obscure and conceal the nature of the operations behind them, 5) The French translator had kept the original Sanskrit technical terms as is, without translating them into French, or providing the meaning of these terms.

In the face of these seemingly unsurmountable difficulties, where lesser men may have thrown up their hands, Cassini persevered and overcame them with passion and brilliant insight, to provide Europe with the keys to Indian Astronomy. One should surely thank the fates for having delivered the manuscript into his capable hands. Not for nothing, it would appear, has Cassini been awarded the title of ‘The First Astronomer of Europe’!

Cassini’s lifetime achievements could easily fill an entire book by itself. Starting from humble beginnings, he rose by dint of his sharp intellect, passion and perseverance, to rise to the Directorship of the Paris Observatory, the leading institution for astronomy in the world.

He was the first to provide an accurate estimate of the Astronomical Unit, the distance between the Earth and the Sun. His Tables of the Satellites of Jupiter were the most accurate ones in those times, which enabled an accurate determination of longitude on the Earth, which in turn greatly reduced the errors in the maps of Europe of the day. The western coast of France, for example, was found to be 70 miles less wide than previously thought, which led King Louis XIV to lament in jest that he was losing more land to his astronomers than to his enemies! In these studies, Cassini also came close to being the first person to determine the speed of light, though the honor would ultimately go to his assistant Ole Romer. Cassini was one of the first scientists to make heavy use of the telescope for astronomical purposes, making numerous ground-breaking discoveries in the heavens. Readers may perhaps know that he was the first to observe a gap in the rings of Saturn, which now goes by his name – the Cassini Division. In his honor, about two decades ago, a spacecraft named the Cassini Orbiter was dispatched to Saturn by NASA to study the planet, which recently completed its mission. On the flip side, Cassini is also known for his entanglements with Isaac Newton on various issues, in all of which Newton ultimately prevailed.

Returning back to our story, coming as it did, from Europe’s top astronomer, Cassini’s detailed description of the data and techniques in the Siamese Manuscript created a great sensation in Europe.

Till that time, it was thought that of all ancient peoples, only the Greeks had cultivated astronomy as a science. Not only were the data and methods of the Siamese Manuscript superior to the Greek, they even rivaled the modern.

Some of Cassini’s interesting observations on the Siamese Manuscript are as follows:

No Tables Used European astronomers of those times used Tables that were painstakingly prepared, to predict the positions of various heavenly bodies like the Sun, Moon and Planets. The Rudolphine Tables, compiled by the celebrated Kepler, were the most accurate ones available in Cassini’s time. Cassini’s first observation was that the Siamese Manuscript used no Tables at all.

These Rules are extraordinary. They make no use of Tables, but only of the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of certain numbers, of which we do not presently comprehend the basis of, nor to what these numbers refer.

Concealed Data: Cassini determined that the seemingly innocuous numbers used in the Manuscript were actually based on astronomical data of various types.

Under these numbers are concealed various periods of Solar Years, Lunar Months and other revolutions, and the relationship of the one with the other. Under these numbers are likewise concealed several sorts of Epochs, which are not clearly stated as such, like the Civil Epoch, the Epoch of the Lunar months, that of the Equinoxes, Apogee and the Solar cycle.

Concealed Operations: He found that in several operations in the Manuscript, the calculations were deliberately obfuscated, perhaps to conceal their actual purpose.

Also, the numbers which represent the differences between these Epochs are not clearly specified at the beginning of the operations to which they serve, as they ought to be, according to the natural order. Instead, they are often mixed with certain other numbers, and the sums or differences are multiplied or divided by others, for they are not always simple numbers, but frequently they are fractions, sometimes simple, sometimes compound, without being expressed in the manner of fractions, the numerator being sometimes in one Section and the denominator in another, as if they had a contrived design to conceal the nature and use of these numbers.

Great Accuracy of Data: The length of the Mean Lunar Month given in the Manuscript was found to be astoundingly accurate. Its value of 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 2.3 seconds, differed from the most accurate estimate in Cassini’s time of 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 3.1 seconds, by only a fraction of one second! Similarly, the Moon’s Mean Apsidal Revolution Period was given as 3232 days, compared to 3233 days in modern times. Also, the 19-Year cycle, called the Metonic Cycle in the west, was known to the Indians with an accuracy within 3 minutes of its modern value, while the western system was off by 1.5 hours. At the end of the 19-Year cycle, the Indian Epact (lag) was automatically zero, while the western calendar lagged by 1 day, which needed a manual correction every 19 years.

The Lunar-Day: The Lunar-Day, which is a little shorter than the Solar-Day, is a unique concept, found only in Indian and Chaldean astronomies. Cassini finds that the Indians base their astronomical calculations almost exclusively on the Lunar-Day, unlike western systems.

Two Zodiacs: Cassini determines that the Indians appear to use two Zodiacs: 1) comprising the regular 12 constellations or signs, and, 2) one comprising 27 constellations. Both the Indian Zodiacs were fixed ones, unlike the Greeks, whose 12-sign-Zodiac was movable.

In summary, Cassini, in his brief memoir, is all praise for the Indian Astronomical system as found in the Siamese Manuscript:

These Rules are ingenious, and once understood clearly and purged of needless superficialities, they should prove useful to us in Europe, since they are easy to apply without the need of books (Tables).

He praises the Indian Calendric system, which, he marvels, had not run into any serious problems since its inception, and continues to be sufficiently accurate even after a thousand years, whereas the Western system had run into difficulties over time.

Thus, it appears that the calendar of the Indians has not run into the error which our old calendar had fallen into, where the New Moons were regulated by the cycle of the Golden Number.

After calculating New Moons for various months in his time (for the 1600s and 1700s), Cassini marvels that the results using the Indian methods match very well with those of the latest methods of his time (Rudolphine Tables).

Having by the same method calculated, according to the Indian Rules, the middle conjunctions of the Moon with the Sun for several years of this and the following centuries, we have always found that every one of these conjunctions fell upon a day whereon the middle conjunction happened according to our Tables.

As an aside, Indian texts on astronomy usually fall into one of three categories – Siddhanta, Tantra or Karana. Unbeknownst to Cassini, the Siamese Manuscript was only a Karana text, and not a full-fledged Siddhanta.

A Siddhanta is a full treatise, which starts with the fundamentals, and undertakes a complete and rigorous theoretical treatment of all topics on the subject. It does not provide examples, practical shortcuts and other such conveniences. It is written with the mathematician and theoretical astronomer in mind. A Karana text lies at the other end of the spectrum. It is composed for the benefit of the village astrologer; one whose needs are completely practical, and who is not very concerned with the background of his calculations, or with the theoretical aspects of the model. It usually has very simple and concise instructions, cryptic formulae, shortcuts and examples, with little or no explanation provided. A Tantra text falls in-between these two types.

It is interesting to speculate what Cassini would have remarked, had he come across a full Indian Siddhanta of Astronomy. Interested readers can check out the full story of the Siamese Manuscript in my recent book.

We will continue Phase-I of the History of Indian Astronomy in the next part of the series, where we will examine developments in Europe subsequent to the publishing of the Siamese Manuscript by Cassini.

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Disclaimer: The opinions expressed within this article are the personal opinions of the author. IndiaFacts does not assume any responsibility or liability for the accuracy, completeness, suitability, or validity of any information in this article.

Anil Narayanan

Anil Narayanan is former scientist at ISRO, now working as a consultant in Washington DC. His hobby is ancient astronomy to which he devotes most of his spare time. He is the author of the book ‘History of Indian Astronomy: The Siamese Manuscript’.

Relevance of the Shrutis for modern society

What relevance do these ancient scriptures of the Hindus hold for the present society? I examine this in the following paragraphs:

3.1 The caste system

The first mention of the caste system anytime in the scriptures is to be found in the Purushsukta of the Rig Veda. Purushasukta (10.090.11 and 12) asserts: ‘When they divided the purusha how many portions did they make? What did they call his mouth, his arms? What did they call his thighs and feet? The Brahman was his mouth, of his both arms the Rajanya made, His thighs became the Vaishyas, from his feet the Sudra was produced (Griffith, 1896:)[1]. Accordingly, one can see that the Varna’s were just labels given to the body parts of the same Purusha.  As they were just the designations of the different parts of the Purusha, the question of inequality therein is irrelevant.  The Brihad-aranyaka Upanishad notes that ‘at the beginning there was only one caste or class, the Brahmana differentiations were not’ (Radhakrishnan, 1992:169)[2]. Consequently, it may not be wrong to surmise that this merit-based system got corrupted down the track.  But this is an issue that needs a separate paper.

‘Vedic period had a total of five castes: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra and Nishada. It was a categorisation according to the capacities and aptitudes of the individual and similar features can be seen in the Iranian literature as well as in the Indo-European nations (Raja, 2006)[3].  Altekar (2006:225) notes ‘there is, however, hardly any evidence to show that these three principal classes [brahmana, kshatriya, and Vaishya] had become hereditary’.   Migration from one caste to the other has been reported from the Vedic period and the system was not set in stone as it happened in subsequent years. Kshatriyas such as Vishwamitra, for example, became Brahmins. Though originally envisaged as merit-based classes or categories (Varna system) in the scriptures as Ambedkar (1916)[4] notes ‘that classes have become Castes through imitation and excommunication’.

Accordingly, one can conclude that there was no birth-based [inheritance-based] but worth-based classification system during the Vedic period and that meritocracy was the norm. Interestingly, the Brihad-aranyaka Upanishad asserts that in the beginning ‘there was only one caste or class, the Brahmana: differentiations were not’ (Radhakrishnan, 1992:169)[5].

3.2 Status of women

During the Vedic period women enjoyed equal status with the men. Raja (2006) notes a ‘complete equality between men and women is found in all parts of Vedic literature, from Samhitas to the Upanishads’.  Not only the gods and goddesses but some of the Vedic poets were women.  Furthermore, there is no mention of child marriage anywhere in the Vedas.  The Manu Smriti (Ch. IX.90) specifically indicates that let the girl wait for three years after she becomes marriageable (attains puberty), but after that let her choose a bridegroom as appropriate (Buhler, 1886)[6]. Accordingly, the choice is given to the girl.  Many women were Rishis (called Rishikas). They include Gargi, Maitreyi, Lopmudra and others.  Prem (2017)[7] has well summarised the status of women in the Vedic period. Many goddesses are women starting from the Usha (the dawn), Saraswati, Laxmi, Durga and others.  Parvati becomes the guru of Shiva. “When Parvati asks the questions and Shiva answers them the treatise is called an Agama; when Siva asks the question and Parvati answers them the treatise is called a Nigama (Bernard, 1947:14)[8].

3.3 Focus on spiritualism NOT proselytization

In some faiths there is an injunction to the adherents to convert others to their faith.  In such faiths the assumption is their God gave monopoly distribution rights of his message to a person called the Prophet to spread Gods message.  One wonders why God was so discriminatory. Hindu scriptures don’t take such divisive outlook. Every individual is free to explore and connect with the divine in his own way.  Hindus don’t have a Prophet, they have Gurus who are teachers, the teach some basic spiritual stuff and thereafter the pupil is on his own.  This is like present education system where the teacher will teach say basic physics but thereafter the student explores and researches in her own way. The focus of Hindu scriptures is the emancipation of the entire humanity from the limited personal world in which they are caught and to raise their thinking to the cosmic consciousness. Accordingly, our scriptures don’t engage in blame-game and myopic world view of pushing their world view but exhort an individual to apply critical thinking and find her/his own way towards divinity.  Accordingly, Hinduism shows the way to end inter-religious strife which is the handywork of proselytizing faiths.  Adopting such liberal attitude shows the maturity of Hindu scriptures vis-à-vis the faiths that have yet to fully develop the cosmic perspective and are only engaged in market share capturing gimmicks.

3.4 Ethical (including work ethics) message

The Isha Upanishad highlights certain ethical values to be imbibed. These include (a)  don’t covet what belongs to others (b) enjoy what is your lot, don’t seek more than what is given (c) don’t be greedy (d) everything you have is given by the Lord, having a craving for wealth means one is yet to open up to the supreme consciousness (e ) don’t claim ownership of anything because the only true owner is the only the Lord (f) do your duty assuming you are going to live for 100 years (g) perform work (duty) as service to the Lord in which case it will not bind you and (h) true happiness can be found when one sees in all beings in his own Self and his own Self in all beings. Furthermore, in the Taittariya Upanishad after Veda teachings is over the guru advises the student to (a) speak the truth (b) practice virtue (c) don’t neglect welfare (d) don’t neglect prosperity and (e) don’t neglect duties (f) don’t neglect law (g) don’t neglect health (h) don’t neglect wealth (i) treat your mother like god (j) treat your father like god (k) treat your guru like god (l) treat your guest like god (m) practice the deeds that are blameless (Olivelle, 1996)[9]. If you are in doubt how to conduct yourself behave yourself as the Brahamna will. The Brahamana have ‘tenderness of sentiment and enlightened conscience [which] should be our standard’ (Radhakrishnan, 1992:539)[10].

The Isha Upanishad tells us that work should be performed as a worship to the Lord and accordingly when the individual acts with the cosmic purpose in mind, the act doesn’t bind her.  The gist of this Upanishad is the unity between the empirical world and the transcendental world. It also underlines that work must be performed as normal keeping contemplative Self alongside.

3.5 Becoming immortal

The Katha Upanishad tells us that by overcoming desires and focussing on the Self can one become immortal and realise the Supreme.  So long as our senses are motivated outwardly, it is difficult to find poise.  It is important to bring the mind and the will in harmony with the universal purpose of God (Radhakrishnan, 1992)[11].  Understanding the Self (Atmajnana) can make one immortal. When such a realisation takes place, one doesn’t grieve on death since only the body is cast off.

3.6 Highest good

The God of Death (Yama) tells Nachiketa, the highest good of a man is not pleasure but moral goodness (Radhakrishnan, 1992)[12].  Before one can realise the Self, purity of the heart is essential. For control of the senses, the parable of the chariot is given in the Katha Upanishad. The intellect should be used to control the mind and through it the senses.

3.7 Standing up for justice

It is interesting to note that even in that age, the Brihad-aranyaka Upanishad shows concern for justice and stands by the weak. ‘There is nothing higher than justice. So, a weak man hopes (to defeat) a strong man by means of justice as one does through a king’ (Radhakrishnan, 1992:170)[13].  The Upanishad asserts that death and disease are to be considered as tapasya (penance).

3.8 Overcoming the fear of death

One can overcome the fear of death when one doesn’t associate the Self with the body.  The body is perishable, but the Self is immortal the Katha Upanishad tells us.  ‘One becomes freed from the jaws of death by knowing That which is soundless, touchless, colourless, undiminishing, and also tasteless, eternal, odourless, without beginning and without end, distinct from Mahat, and ever constant’ (PB, 2011:711)[14]. Similarly, the Svetashwatara Upanishad asserts “His form does not exist within the range of vision; nobody sees this One with the eye. Those who thus know this One as existing in the heart, through a pure intellect and mind, they become immortal” (PB, 2011:711)[15].

3.9 The secret of happiness

The central aim of Hinduism is realisation of the divinity within.  “Know Thy Self’ is the take-away from Hinduism. In Chandogya Upanishad, Svetaketu asks his father ‘What is that by knowing which all can be known?’ The father replies ‘By knowing yourself’. ‘You are that’ divinity Svetketu (Max Muller, 2014:183)[16].

4. Conclusion

 The Shrutis provide the template for the subsequent development of Hindu thought. The metaphysical, epistemological, logical and ethical aspects discussed in this essay demonstrate how advanced the Vedic thought was. ‘Philosophy in India is not simply a search for spirit, it is also a critical analysis (anviksiki) of the data provided by perception’ (Gupta, 1999:539)[17]. The Shrutis offer two important constructs Dharma and Karma to the world philosophical thought. It is in the Upanishad that one finds Hindu philosophical thought fully developed. Hindu metaphysics, ethics, epistemology and logic, find themselves grounded in the Vedas. The Vedas adopt a very positive attitude towards life and pray for a happy life of one hundred years and beyond.  Early on Vedic people proclaimed the unity of gods in the form of Aditi – which is the infinite and immanent Principal. Ten principal Upanishads were briefly reviewed to understand the central message of each.  There are several take-aways for modern man and modern society from these ancient scriptures. 

Notes

[1] Griffith, R. (1896) op. cit.

[2] Radhakrishnan, S. (1992). Op cit

[3] Raja, CK. (2006) op. cit.

[4] Ambedkar, B. (1916) Castes in India: Their genesis, mechanism and development, Retrieved: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/txt_ambedkar_castes.html

[5] Radhakrishnan, S. (1992) op cit

[6] Buhler, G. (1886) The Laws of Manu, The Clearendon Press, Oxford.

[7] http://indiafacts.org/clarifying-role-women-sacred-feminine/

[8] Bernard, T. (1947) op cit

[9] Olivelle, P. (1996) Upanisads, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

[10] Radhakrishnan, S (1992) op cit

[11] Radhakrishnan, S. (1992) op cit

[12] Radhakrishnan, S. (1992) ibid

[13] Radhakrishnan, S. (1992) op cit.

[14] [PB] Prabuddha Bharat, vol. 116, no. 12 Advait Ashram, Kolkata

[15] [PB] Prabuddha Bharat, vol. 116, no. 12 Advait Ashram, Kolkata

[16] Max Muller (1899) The Six systems of Indian Philosophy, Forgotten Books 2014, London.

[17] Gupta, B. (1999) The contemporary Indian situation, in (ed.Deutsch and Bontekoe) A companion to world philosophies, Blackwell, USA.

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Disclaimer: The opinions expressed within this article are the personal opinions of the author. IndiaFacts does not assume any responsibility or liability for the accuracy, completeness, suitability, or validity of any information in this article.

Milind Sathye

Milind Sathye is an Australian academic.

Vedāngas

These are six branches of learning whose knowledge is considered a pre-requisite to learning the Vedas. They are: Kalpa (ritual), Vyākaraṇa (grammar), shikshā (phonetics), Nirukta (Etymology), Jyotisha (astronomy) and Chhanda (Prosody)

Phonetics (Shikshās)

Shikshā is one of the six Vedangas, treating the traditional Hindu science of phonetics and phonology of Sanskrit.

Its aim is the teaching of the correct pronunciation of the Vedic hymns and mantras. The oldest phonetic textbooks are the Prātishākyas (prātiśākhya, a vrddhi abstract from Sanskrit prati-śākhā), describing pronunciation, intonation of Sanskrit, as well as the Sanskrit rules of sandhi (word combination), specific to individual schools or Shakhas of the Vedas.

The Prātishakhyas, which evolved from the more ancient padapāthas around c. 500 BCE, deal with the manner in which the Vedas are to be enunciated.

Eight Pratishākhyas are preserved today:

• Rigveda-Prātishākya (Shākala shākhā), attributed to Shaunaka
• Shukla–Yajurveda-Prātishākhya
• Taittiriya (Krishṇa Yajurveda) Prātishākhya
• Sāmatantram. A portion of it is also called Aksharatantra, and is often taken to be a separate text.
• Riktantram (Sāmaveda). A versified abridgment of this text called the Laghuriktantra also exists.
• Pushpa Sūtra (Sāmaveda), also called the Phulla Sūtra
• Atharvaveda-Prātishākhya (Shaunakīya shākhā)
• Shaunakiya Chaturādhyāyīkā (Shaunakīya shākhā)

Several others known to exist till recent centuries have been lost. A manuscript of Maitrāyaṇīya Prātishākhya existed till a few decades back for instance. Likewise, the Bāshkala Prātishākhya belonging to Rigveda is found quoted in literature.

In addition, several other Shikshā texts are preserved, such as Vyāsa Shikshā, Yājnavalkya Shikshā, Panini Shikshā, Āpishali Shikshā, Māṇdukī Shikshā, Kauṇdinya Shikshā and so on.

Grammar (Vyākaraṇa)

Will be dealt in future articles.

Ritual (Kalpasūtras)

Kalpa Sūtras are systematic and practical, aphoristic treatises laying down the procedures for the performance of Vedic rituals for its adherents. The Kalpa sūtra are typically aligned to one of these recensions or Shākhās of the Vedas. For instance, the Baudhāyana texts are aligned with the Taittiriya Samhitā, Taittiriya Brāhmaṇa and the Taittiriya Āraṇyaka. So is the case with the sutras of Āpastamba, Bhāradvāja, Hiranyakeshin, Vaikhānasa and so on.

Types of the Kalpa Literature
1. Shrauta Sūtras: The Shrauta rituals are very complex Vedic rituals requiring the use of the 3 Vedic fires. They employ Vedic mantras in their liturgy and often require a team of specialist priests for their performance. The Shrauta Sūtras often form the core text of the entire Kalpa Sūtra, and the following Grhya Sūtra etc., presuppose their existence.
2. Grhya Sūtras: Deal with the domestic fire rituals. The Grhya rituals are comparatively simple, and can be performed by a householder without the aid of priests. They employ only one fire and their liturgy consists of collections of verses taken from various Vedic texts.
3. Dharma Sūtras: These are like the laws of Manu, being codes of conduct. The Dharma sūtras are manuals of ethical instruction. Unlike the Shrauta and the Grhya sūtras that restrict themselves to the parent Vedic school, the Dharma Sūtras are more general in their sphere of instruction. They cover the duties and the rights of people belonging to different stages of life and castes, contain instructions on ritual purity, morals, atonements for various sins, and the kārmic result of various sinful and virtuous actions and so on.
4. Shulvasutras: These are mathematical/geometrical treatises dealing with the construction of altars of various shapes and sizes for the performance of Vedic sacrifices. They are often included in the Shrauta Sūtras.
5. Pitrmedha Sūtras: Treatises on cremation of the dead. They lay down the correct procedure for the funeral ceremony, for adherence by the son or a close relative of the deceased person. Often included in the Shrauta Sūtras or appended to the Grhya Sūtras. The surviving texts in this class are those of Āpastamba (or Bhāradvāja), Baudhāyana, Gautama
6.Pravara sutras: List of various lineages, and clans and their progenitors of these clans and so on.
7. Other miscellaneous texts: Parishishtas, snāna sūtras and so on.
The following chart gives some of the major surviving Kalpasutras related to the different Vedas:

Many of these Kalpa Sūtras have commentaries written on them by later scholars, and therefore form a vast literature in themselves.

Jyotisha (Astronomy)

Unlike later texts on Jyotisha which deal mainly with Astrology, the Vedanga texts of Jyotisha deal with astronomy. The division of time in smaller units, planetary motions and positions and so on were of vital importance to plan and execute Vedic rituals per a pre-determined schedule and per the proper procedure. The Rigveda and Yajurveda have a Vedānga Jyotisha authored by Rishi Lagadha whereas the Atharvaveda Jyotisha is authored by Rishi Kashyapa. In later times, the astrology aspect of Jyotisha became a very popular tradition in the Hindu society and dozens of texts belong to astrology exist. However, texts on astrology do not strictly fall within the Vedānga category and should be studied separately because they do not have any direct Vedic connection.

Nirukta (Etymology)

This Vedānga deals with derivation and etymology of Vedic words and supplements Grammar. It comprises of a lexicon called Nighantu and a commentary on it by Rishi Yāska called the Nirukta. In the tradition of Atharvaveda, a Kautsavya Nirukta also survives. Many older works in this category by Shākapūṇi, Upamanyu etc., have not survived but are found quoted in existing works.

Chhanda (Prosody)

Much of Vedic Samhitas comprise of verses that have a fixed number of syllables arranged in particular order. The oldest surviving work on Vedic Meter is by Pingala Muni, who is said to be the younger brother of the great grammarian Panini. This subject matter is also dealt with in several ancient surviving works such as the Chhandovichiti of Patanjali and the Rik-Prātishākhya of Shaunaka.

The main principle of Vedic meter is measurement by the number of syllables. The metrical unit of verse is the pada (“foot”), generally of eight, eleven, or twelve syllables; these are termed gāyatrī, trishtubh and jagatī respectively, after meters of the same name. A Richa is a stanza of typically three or four padas, with a range of two to seven found in the corpus of Vedic poetry. Stanzas may mix padas of different lengths, and strophes of two or three stanzas (respectively, pragātha and tricha) are common.

In the Indian tradition, it is customary to know three things about each mantra : The devatā (deity), the Rishi (the speaker) and the Chhanda (the poetical meter). It is forbidden to study the Vedas without knowing these 3 things about the mantras. All good editions of the Vedas explicitly list these 3 for each mantra at the beginning of each chapter, sūkta (hymn) and so on. Many of the meters of the Vedic verses (like Ushnika, Gayatri, Jagati etc.) are actually mentioned in some mantras of the Rigveda, Atharvaveda etc., implying that knowledge of prosody was presumed by the Rishis of these mantras.

Each Veda also has traditionally a sequential list/tabulation of meters for all verses called the Chhando’anukramaṇī. The Chhando’anukramaṇī of RV is written by Sage Shaunaka. It was later incorporated into a more general Anukramaṇī (list) by Kātyāyana who is placed at 4^th to 2^nd Cent. BCE. The Chhando’anukramaṇī of Atharvaveda is a part of the ‘Brihatsarvanukramaṇi’ which is an undateable text but very old nevertheless. The Chhando’anukramaṇī of Samaveda is so old that it is accorded the rank of a ‘Brāhmaṇa’ (scriptural cannon) text.

Upavedas

The term Upaveda (“applied knowledge”) is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works.  Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. A commonly accepted list is as –

1. Medicine (Āyurveda), associated with the Rigveda. The major texts of this Upaveda are Charaka Samhitā, Sushruta Samhita, Bhela Samhitā, Hārita Samhitā and Kāshyapa Samhitā. But Sushruta Samhitā and Bhāvaprakāshamention Āyurveda as an Upaveda of the Atharvaveda.
2. Military Science (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda. The main surviving texts are Nītiprakāshikā of Vaishampāyana, Dhanurveda of Vashishtha and Īshvara Samhitā of Shiva.
3. Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda), associated with the Sāmaveda
4. Arthashāstra (Economics), associated with the Atharvaveda.  The Arthashāstra of Kautilya is the oldest surviving text in this genre. The Arthasūtras of Brihaspati and some other later texts also survive, but the original texts of Indra etc., are considered lost.
5. Sometimes, the Shilpa-Sthāpatya Veda (dealing with architecture and construction) is also considered as the fourth Upaveda attached to the Atharvaveda. Several texts survive in this class – Mayamatam, Vāstuvidyā of Vishvakarma etc.

It may be noted that whereas the Vedas and their allied literature focus more on Dharma and Moksha amongst the 4 Purushārthas, the Upavedas focus more on the Artha and Kāma Purushārthas.

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Disclaimer: The opinions expressed within this article are the personal opinions of the author. IndiaFacts does not assume any responsibility or liability for the accuracy, completeness, suitability, or validity of any information in this article.

Vishal Agarwal

Vishal Agarwal is an independent scholar residing in Minneapolis (USA) with his wife, two children and a dog. He has authored one book and over fifteen book chapters and papers, some in peer reviewed journals, about ancient India and Hinduism. He and his wife founded the largest weekend school teaching Hinduism to students, and also a teenager organization to keep them engaged in Dharma. Vishal has participated in numerous interfaith forums, and has represented Hindus and Indians in school classrooms and in seminars. Vishal is the recipient of the Hindu American Foundation’s Dharma Seva Award (2010), the Global Hindu Academy’s Scholar award (2014) and service awards from the Hindu Society of Minnesota (2014 and 2015). He is very strongly engaged in the social and Dharmic activities of the Indian and Hindu communities of Minnesota, and has authored a series of ten textbooks for use in weekend Hindu schools by children from the ages 4-14. Professionally, Vishal is a biomedical Engineer with graduate degrees in Materials Engineering and Business Administration (MBA). His scientific and statistical training enables him to bring precision and a high level of rigor in his research – qualities that are very often missing in contemporary publications on Indology and in South Asian Studies.

The Vedas or Shruti

Importance of the Vedas

As explained above, the Vedas are considered the supreme scriptures, or the gold-standard by most Hindus. The word ‘Veda’ is often derived from 5 Sanskrit roots these days:

• Vid jnaane: To know
• Vid sattaayaam: To be, to endure
• Vid labhe: To obtain
• Vid vichaarane: To consider
• Vid chetanaakhyaananiveseshu: To feel, to tell, to dwell

To these roots is added the suffix ‘ghaw’ according to Ashtādhyāyī 3.3.19, the celebrated text of Sanskrit grammar of Panini. Accordingly, the word Veda means ‘the means by which, or in which all persons know, acquire mastery in, deliberate over the various lores or live or subsist upon them.’

Traditionally, the Vedic literature as such signifies a vast body of sacred and esoteric knowledge concerning eternal spiritual truths revealed to sages (Rishis) during intense meditation. They have been accorded the position of revealed scriptures and are revered in Hindu religious tradition. Over the millennia the Vedas have been handed over generation to generation by oral tradition and hence the name “shruti” or “that which is heard”. According to tradition they are un-authored (apaurusheya) and eternal, and are considered the revelation of God to the Rishis. This is the other reason for calling them Shruti.

Theoretically, the Vedic corpus is held in deep reverence in the Hindu society. It constitutes the most authoritative genre of Hindu scriptures. Any other Hindu scripture must agree with the Vedas in order to be considered an authority. Schools of philosophy which reject the authority of the Vedas are considered ‘Naastika’ or heretical, while schools which accept Vedic authority, even if nominally, are considered ‘Aastika’ or orthodox, from a Hindu perspective. While most Hindus never see Vedic texts in their lifetime, the term ‘Veda’ is used as a synonym for authoritativeness in religious matters. The Vedas are considered full of all kinds of knowledge, and an infallible guide for man in his quest for the four goals – Dharma, Artha(material welfare), Kāma (pleasure and happiness) and Moksha (Salvation). In sacred Hindu literature, they are considered the very manifestation of God, and the ultimate source of all wisdom and of all Dharma.

Hindu priests were exhorted to study them regularly, recite their sentences, practice their sacraments and memorize their words. In practice however, this has been restricted to a dwindling minority of the Brāhmaṇa caste, despite recent attempts to revive Vedic study, ritual and recitation in the traditional manner. On the other hand, the Vedic texts are now widely available in print, and this has lead to a greater dissemination of their knowledge amongst Hindu masses, than say, a century back. Even here however, the popularization largely concerns the spiritual treatises called the Upanishads – the texts par excellence of Hindu spirituality. In fact, for several centuries now, the word ‘Veda’ has been used by Hindu teachers to indicate the Upanishadic texts in particular.

How Were the Vedas Revealed?

According to Hindu tradition, Bhagavān Brahmā created the Universe and then revealed the four Vedas to numerous Rishis at the beginning of this creation. Since then, an unbroken chain of students and teachers have been transmitting the Vedas down to our time. The four faces of Brahmā represent these four Vedas as well as the four directions.

The Vedas are also associated with his consort Devi Sarasvati, who is the Devi of all wisdom and knowledge.

The Vedas however are not the creation or composition of the Brahmā because they are eternal. Bhagavān Brahmā is merely their caretaker of this Divine knowledge, which really belongs to the Supreme Being (Brahman). However, Brahmā also composed some original works, which initiated many other branches of Hindu knowledge – like Ayurveda, Dharmashāstras etc. All these works whose tradition started from the original compositions of Brahmā are called Smritis; whereas the Vedas which were revealed by Brahmā but not authored by him are called Shruti (‘that which are heard from Brahman’).

As time progressed, the capacity of human beings to study scriptures declined. Sometimes, the Vedas even got lost. Therefore, a Rishi appeared periodically to re-arrange them and even rediscover them. The current version of the four Vedas is said to have been given their present form by Rishi Veda Vyasa, who was the son of Rishi Parāshara, and a fisherwoman named Satyavatī. Veda Vyāsa then taught the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda to his four students: Rishi Paila, Rishi Vaishampāyana, Rishi Jaimini and Rishi Sumantu respectively. They in turn taught them to numerous disciples and so on, leading to slightly differing versions of the four Vedas. These versions are known by the names of the last Rishis after whom no other modifications were made to the texts of the Vedas.

However, another viewpoint is that hundreds of very ancient Rishis (mainly on the banks of the river Sarasvati which dried out by 1500 BCE or even earlier) received the hymns and sections of the four Vedas from Brahman. Brahmā has no role to play in this viewpoint. A big chunk of these revelations were lost with time, and Veda Vyāsa compiled whatever remained, to preserve it for posterity. Even the existing Vedic literature is 6 times the length of the Bible, and is much older!

There is a third, modern viewpoint proposed by Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1873 CE). According to this view, the Supreme Being revealed the four Vedas respectively to Rishis Agni (Rigveda), Vāyu (Yajurveda), Āditya (Samaveda) and Angirasa (Atharvaveda).

Several modern scholars have proposed different dates for the Vedas:[1]

• Tilak       4000 – 2500 BCE
• Jacobi    4000 BCE
• Wilson  3500 BCE
• Hough   2500 – 1400 BCE
• R C Dutt 2000 – 1400 BCE
• Roth      1000 BCE
• Max Mueller 1500 – 1200 BCE

Classification of the Vedic Scriptures

The Vedas are four in number – Rigveda, Yajurveda, Sāmaveda and Atharvaveda. According to tradition, each Veda can be divided into two parts – Mantras and Brāhmaṇas. A collection of Mantras is typically called a Samhitā, although they can also occur in the Brāhmaṇa texts. Currently, and often in ancient Hindu tradition as well, it is often the Samhita portion alone which is referred to as the Veda. For instance, the word ‘Rigveda’ would typically mean the Rigveda Samhitā. The Ārya Samāj school of Hindus, responsible for the modern revival of Vedic study in northern India, and founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 CE, in fact rejects the Brāhmaṇas as portions of Vedas. For them, the Vedas include only the four Samhitās – Rigveda Samhitā( Shākala version), Atharvaveda Samhitā (in its Shaunaka version), Yajurveda Samhitā (Mādhyandina version) and the Sāmaveda (Kauthuma version). All other Samhitās and the rest of the Vedic literature is considered by them to be outside the Veda proper.

The Brāhmaṇas have their own names and are more like theological treatises of the Vedas. The ending portions of many Brahmanas have an esoteric content, called the ‘Āraṇyaka’. Embedded in these Āraṇyakas, or normally at their very end, are deeply spiritual treatises called the ‘Upanishads’. For several centuries now, Upanishads are the mainstay of Hindu spiritual traditions, and are held in the highest esteem.

In the case of the Rigveda, Samaveda and the Atharvaveda, there is a clear-cut separation of the Mantra collection from the Brahmana portions. In contrast, the Yajurveda is of two types: Shukla (or ‘white’) Yajurveda and Krishna (or black) Yajurveda. In the former, the Mantra and Brāhmaṇa collections occur separately from each other. But in the latter, the Mantra and the Brāhmaṇa portions are intermixed. Thus, the Taittiriya ‘Samhitā’ belonging to the Krishna Yajurveda has Mantras interspersed with Brahmana portions. Even the Taittiriya ‘Brahmana’ has both Mantras and Brāhmaṇa passages mixed with each other.

Coming to the Brāhmaṇa texts, there is often no clear-cut distinction between the Brāhmaṇas proper and the Āraṇyakas, or between the Āraṇyakas and the Upanishads. The Brāhmaṇa text proper often merges into the Āraṇyakas and many old Upanishads are actually embedded in the Āraṇyakas.

There are a few exceptions even to the above generalizations on the internal distinctions in the Vedic texts.

What are Mantras? What are Samhitās?

The mantras are basically hymns sung to the Devas or Deities – the devotional outpourings of the souls of poets. The Samhitās of the four Vedas were compiled for the smooth performance of Vedic ceremonies. Four types of priests are needed to perform a Vedic sacrifice:

• The Hotr priest who sings hymns to Gods inviting them to preside over the sacrifice.
• The Udgātā priest who sings sweet hymns in musical tones for the entertainment of the Gods
• The Adhvaryu priest who performs the sacrifice according to strict ritualistic code and makes the offering to the Gods
• The Brahmā priest well versed in all the Vedas who supervises the sacrifice.

The four Samhitas are said to have been compiled to fulfill the needs of these four main priests: Rk-Samhita for the Hotr, Sama-Samhita for the Udgātā, Yajurveda Samhita for the Adhvaryu and the Atharvaveda Samhita for the Brahma priest. Initially however, there was no special connection of the Brahmā priest with the Atharvaveda, as this Veda was and is not as closely integrated with Vedic ritual as the other three Vedas are.

 Mantras are basically of 3 major types, when classified according to their physical form: Riks, Yajus and Sāmans. Riks are versified mantras. Yajus are prose mantras whereas Sāmans are melodies set on Rk.

• The Rigveda is so called because it is comprised of Riks.
• The Yajurveda is so called because it is composed predominantly of prose mantras (Yajus) although it has hundreds of Riks as well. However, even the Riks in Yajurveda are recited as if they were prose passages.
• The Sāmaveda Samhitā is composed of melodies called Sāmans, and also the underlying Riks which are set to these melodies.
• The Atharvaveda is comprised of Riks (5/6 portion) as well as Yajus (1/6). Some adept Vedic scholars can set even the mantras of Atharvaveda to melodies.

In many ways, the Samhitā of the Rigveda constitutes the basis of other Samhitās. Not only is it the most ancient Vedic text, it also contributes hundreds of verses to the other Samhitās. The poetical beauty of the Rigveda and the depth of its meaning are described in the following words by a modern scholar:

“The fact that the verses of the Vedas are poetic in form and liturgical in function warns us against trying to reduce them to strictly rational forms or literal meanings. This sacred wisdom goes far beyond mere intellectual knowledge; it is the wisdom heard and felt in the hearts of the great seers and expressed by them in poem and song so that it might resound in the hearts of all people, awakening them to the tremendousness, mysteriousness, and joy of their own being as they participate in cosmic creation.”[2]

Theoretically, the Mantras have a higher authority than the Brahmanas.

What are the Brāhmaṇas?

The word ‘Brāhmaṇas’ means ‘through which we can know Brahma’, where ‘Brahma’ is another name for the Vedas. Therefore, the Brāhmaṇas are texts which expound the Vedic mantras and Vedic ritual ceremonies (Yajñas). These scriptures are characterized by statements of eulogy, censure, exposition and (ritual) application (of mantras). Many scholars, modern and ancient, have tried to define the Brāhmaṇas by stating their characteristics. The reality however is that there is no sharp difference in the characteristics of the Mantra and the Brahmana portions of the Vedas. The only thing that we may state safely is this – Mantras are those portions of the Vedas that are designated as such traditionally. And the rest is Brāhmaṇa.

Unlike the mantras, which are mostly in verse, the Brāhmaṇas are predominantly prose. The Brāhmaṇas contain formulas for rituals, rules and regulations for rites and sacrifices and also outline other religious duties. The formulas and rules for conducting extremely complex rituals are explained to the minutest detail. And every ritual is performed for a specific purpose for which a specific effect/benefit is expected. It was felt that there was nothing that could not be achieved by sacrifices – the sun could be stopped from rising and Indra, the chief of Deities, could be deposed from his throne. The duties of men professing different occupations, the eternity of the Veda, popular customs, cosmogony, historical details, and praise of ancient heroes are some other subjects dealt with in the Brāhmaṇas.

What are Āraṇyakas? [3]

The Brāhmaṇas which deal predominantly with Vedic Yajnas fade gradually into more spiritual treatises called the Āraṇyakas. These scriptures contain several techniques of meditation and they explain the esoteric and mystical meanings of Yajñas. In short, the symbolic and spiritual aspects of the Vedic religion are meditated upon in the Ārañyakas.

The word Āraṇyaka means “belonging to the wilderness” that is, as Taittiriya  Āraṇyakas says, “from where one cannot see the roofs of the settlement”. According to some scholars, the other reason for their name is that this portion of the Vedas was the primary focus of study during the ‘Vānaprastha’ (forest hermit) state of one’s life, when the person retired from active life in his old age to lead a sedentary lifestyle devoted to study of scriptures and performance of specific Vedic Yajñas.

Āraṇyakas are also called ‘Rahasya-Brāhmaṇa’ or the secret portion of the Brāhmaṇas. The Āraṇyakas are ‘secret’ in the sense that

1. They are restricted to a particular class of rituals that nevertheless were frequently included in the Vedic curriculum that was primarily conveyed individually from teacher to student.
2. They convey the non-apparent spiritual meanings of the Vedic ceremonies.

The Āraṇyakas are associated with and named after individual Vedic shākhās or branches.

1. Aitareya Āraṇyaka belongs to the Shākala Shākhā of Rigveda
2. Kaushitakī Āraṇyaka belongs to the Kaushitakī and Shānkhāyana Shākhās of Rigveda
3. Taittiriya Āraṇyaka belongs to the Taittiriya Shākhā of Krishna-Yajurveda
4. Maitrayaniya Āraṇyaka belongs to the Maitrayaniya Shākhā of Krishna-Yajurveda
5. Katha Āraṇyaka belongs to the (Charaka) Katha Shākhā of the Krishna-Yajurveda. Only fragments of it survive and are being still published.
6. Brihad- Āraṇyaka in the Mādhyandina and the Kāṇva versions. The Mādhyandina version has 8 sections, of which the last 6 are the Brihadarāṇyaka Upanishad.
7. Talavakāra Āraṇyaka or Jaiminiya Upanisadbrāhmaṇa belongs to the Talavakāra or Jaiminiya Shākhā of Sāmaveda.
8. The first three of the eight chapters of the Chhāndogya Upanishad have the nature of a Āraṇyaka.
9. Āraṇyaka Samhitā The Pūrvārchika of the Sāmaveda Samhitās have a section called the ‘Āraṇyaka Samhita’ on which the Āranyagāna Sāmans are sung.
10. The Atharvaveda has no surviving Āraṇyaka, though one may regard the Gopatha Brāhmaṇa as its Āraṇyaka, a remnant of a larger Atharva (Paippalāda) Brāhmaṇa.

What are the Upanishads?

The Vedas have highly philosophical portions called the Upanishads, that form the bedrock of Hindu spirituality and theology. The Upanishads typically occur towards the end of the corpus of their respective Vedic Shakha and therefore they are often also called ‘Vedānta’. For example, the Taittiriya Shākhā of Yajurveda is arranged in the following manner: Taittiriya Samhita, Taittiriya Brāhmaṇa and Taittiriya Āraṇyaka. The last 4 of the 10 chapters of the Taittiriya Āraṇyaka comprise the Taittiriya and the Mahānārāyaṇa Upanishads. The presence of the Upanishads towards the end of their respective Vedic corpus indicates that they represent the final conclusion (Siddhānta) of the Veda. This is another reason why they are called Vedanta (Veda + Siddhānta).

Traditionally, the 10 Upanishads on which Ādi Shankarāchārya wrote his commentary are considered the major Upanishads. These 10 Upanishads are:

• Aitareya Upanishad belonging to the Rigveda
• Ishāvāsya and Brihadāraṇyaka Upanishad belonging to the Shukla Yajurveda
• Taittiriya and Katha Upanishads belonging to the Krishna Yajurveda
• Chhāndogya and Kena Upanishads belonging to the Sāmaveda
• Muṇdaka, Māṇdukya and Prashna Upanishads belonging to the Atharvaveda.

In addition, the following Upanishads are also considered very ancient and authoritative:

• Kaushitaki Upanishad belonging to the Rigveda
• Mahānārāyaṇa, Kaivalya, Shvetashāvatara and Maitrāyaṇīya Upanishad belonging to the Krishna Yajurveda

Tradition lists 108 Upanishads as the major Upanishads, and close to 200 Upanishads survive. However, the above 15 Upanishads and some others (such as Nīlarudra, Chhāgaleya, Ārsheya, Shaunaka, Bāshkalamantra) alone are the ancient Upanishads. Several portions of the Samhitā proper (e.g., the Brahmasūkta of the Atharvaveda), Brāhmaṇa proper (e.g., the first few sections of the Jaiminiya Brāhmaṇa or the Agnirahasya portion of the Shatapatha Brāhmaṇa) and Āraṇyakas (e.g., Chapters 9-10, 14-15 of the Shānkhāyana Āraṇyaka) are also similar to Upanishads.

Many of the newer Upanishads propound doctrines related to Sannyāsa, Yoga, Sāmkhya, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shāktism, worship of Gaṇapati and also summaries and expositions of the newer school of Vedānta such as Advaita Vedānta. Such sectarian Upanishads have been utilized to the hilt by later Hindu teachers to provide the Shruti based ‘proof’ that their sectarian ways are exalted above the other sectarian ways. While doing so, they quote the Upanishads selectively but never reject the other Upanishadic texts directly or indirectly since the Shruti cannot be rejected at all. For example, the Vaishnava Vedantists quote the Nārāyaṇa Upanishad and similar Upanishads profusely to prove that Lord Vishnu is the Supreme Lord and all other Deities are lesser, explaining away the Shaivite Atharvashīrsha Upanishad. The Shaivite Vedantists do the opposite.

“…Some have referred to the Upanisads as the ‘philosophical’ section of the Vedas. If by ‘philosophical’ one understands a systematic, coherent body of knowledge derived from inferential argument based on an analysis of experience, then these ancient texts are not ‘philosophical.’ In that case, one cannot criticize them for having a plurality of views that are not always mutually compatible, for being mystical and therefore non-rational in places, or for being didactic, that is, bent on teaching and instruction. The nature of philosophy in the modern Western sense is to be a form of public knowledge, its rational credentials available to the scrutiny of all. But the Upanisads, which ask questions and offer answers on the prigins of the universe and the production of being, on the nature of human existence and its goals, the relationship between beings and the source of being etc., attempt this task by continuing the Vedic tradition of private instruction based on personal initiation and passed down from teacher to disciple, by exploring perceived hidden correspondences between the human microcosm and the cosmic macrocosm, by plumbing the depths and searching the heights of conscious experience, by interiorizing the solemn ritual still further and understanding the role of speech and speech acts in this process, by giving instruction about the good life, by offering teaching about the mystery of death and the after-life, by trying to unify inner and outer being. They are a plural and pluralistic exercise in solving the conundrum of existence for the initiated; they are not systematic philosophical treatises. Nor can they be described as ‘speculative’ as is sometimes asserted; at least not from their point of view. They generally profess to give accredited insights based on experience and inquiry (whether one accept these or not); they do not claim to be guesswork. This is one reason why they exerted, and still exert, an unparalleled authority among large sections of the Hindu tradition, once their secretive teachings were recorded for posterity and opened up to increasingly wider public.”[4]

Oral Nature of Vedic Scriptures

The Vedic texts were traditionally transmitted orally (or at least predominantly without the aid of manuscripts, which might have been used sparingly as memory aids). This was essential because the texts were ‘accented’, or in other words the different words or letters therein were recited according to different pitch/tones. Very elaborate mnemonic devices were developed to preserve the texts with great fidelity, and harsh Divine vengeance and evil repercussions were promised to those who deformed or mutilated the text in any manner. As a result, several Vedic texts were indeed transmitted over several millennia with utmost fidelity, together with accent. It took several years for a student to memorize one or more Vedic texts, word for word, letter for letter, with the correct accent, under the personal supervision of a competent teacher. The texts that are used for aiding the memorization and recitation of the Vedas with utmost fidelity, are called ‘Lakshaṇa Granthas’. These texts include Anukramaṇīs, Padapāthas, Ghanapāthas, Kramapātha and other Vikrtis or modifications of the root text, phonetic treatises like Shikshās and Prātishākhyas and so on.

In some cases however, the accents were lost with time and the texts had to be recited without the Vedic accents. This is called the ‘ekashruti’ mode of recitation. A prime example of such a text is the Paippalāda Samhitā of the Atharvaveda. Similarly, Bhatta Kumārila (circa 650 CE) notes that the Brāhmaṇas of Samaveda had lost their accents even in his times and were recited without them.

Notes

[1] Sharma (2000), p. 204

[2] Koller, p. 21

[3] Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aranyaka

[4] Lipner (2010), p. 52

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Disclaimer: The opinions expressed within this article are the personal opinions of the author. IndiaFacts does not assume any responsibility or liability for the accuracy, completeness, suitability, or validity of any information in this article.

Vishal Agarwal

Vishal Agarwal is an independent scholar residing in Minneapolis (USA) with his wife, two children and a dog. He has authored one book and over fifteen book chapters and papers, some in peer reviewed journals, about ancient India and Hinduism. He and his wife founded the largest weekend school teaching Hinduism to students, and also a teenager organization to keep them engaged in Dharma. Vishal has participated in numerous interfaith forums, and has represented Hindus and Indians in school classrooms and in seminars. Vishal is the recipient of the Hindu American Foundation’s Dharma Seva Award (2010), the Global Hindu Academy’s Scholar award (2014) and service awards from the Hindu Society of Minnesota (2014 and 2015). He is very strongly engaged in the social and Dharmic activities of the Indian and Hindu communities of Minnesota, and has authored a series of ten textbooks for use in weekend Hindu schools by children from the ages 4-14. Professionally, Vishal is a biomedical Engineer with graduate degrees in Materials Engineering and Business Administration (MBA). His scientific and statistical training enables him to bring precision and a high level of rigor in his research – qualities that are very often missing in contemporary publications on Indology and in South Asian Studies.